The concept of deliberate practice was introduced by professor and psychologist, Dr. K. Anders Ericsson and his colleagues, Drs. Ralf T. Krampe and Clemens Tesch-Römer in 1993 as part of their seminal paper, titled “The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance” (Ericsson et al. 1993). Deliberate practice describes an effortful process of focusing on areas that are at the edge or just beyond one’s current level, receiving and internalizing immediate feedback (ideally from a skilled teacher), and working to improve these areas, repeating the process until the desired goal is accomplished (Ericsson et al. 1993). Self-regulated learning, pioneered by professor and education researcher, Dr. Barry Zimmerman, is a three-phase approach to learning, consisting of forethought, performance, and self-reflection. In this approach, learners actively choose their goals, adopting strategies to attain these goals (forethought), self-monitor their own performance, assess progress, align their environment with their chosen goals, and manage time effectively (performance), and then self-evaluate learning methods, reflect on progress, and adapt methods to achieve future goals (self-reflection) (Zimmerman 2002). Flow experiences, according to psychologist and professor, Mihály Csíkszentmihályi’s theory of flow (Csíkszentmihályi 1975) typically involves an individual being completely absorbed in an activity for its own sake. The challenge of the activity is optimally positioned relative to the individual’s skill level, neither so easy to be boring, nor so difficult that it provokes anxiety, and the individual is fully immersed in the present moment.

What does the literature say about the role of deliberate practice, self-regulated learning, and flow in practicing music effectively? The findings of several studies shed light on precisely this topic. In a prospective study of the roles of practice time, deliberate practice, and self-regulation in practice outcomes, educational psychology professors and researchers, Arielle Bonneville-Roussy and Thérèse Bouffard found that “goal-directed and focused periods of practice include both self-regulation and deliberate practice strategies” (Bonneville-Roussy and Bouffard 2014). In a review of the literature on applying self-regulated learning to the practice habits of advanced musicians, educational psychologists, Drs. Camilla dos Santos Silva and Helena Marinho note that “SRL (self-regulated learning) training helped the participants to set more realistic and hierarchical goals, improve practice efficiency through better time management, and adapt their learning strategies appropriately” (dos Santos Silva and Marinho 2024). Moreover, in their study of 168 classically trained musicians, music educators and professors, Marcos V. Araújo and Christopher F. Hein discovered that flow experiences are predicted by the inclusion of self-efficacy, internal motivation, planning, and thoughtfully structuring tasks in practice sessions (Araújo and Hein 2019).

While the principles of deliberate practice, self-regulated learning, and flow can be difficult to remember while we practice music, there are several practically applicable ways to apply them to our music practice. As a starting point, think of the three phases of self-regulated learning as a robust way to organize your practice routine. Before starting to practice, use forethought to set practice goals and strategies for your practice session. When practicing, use the performance phase to apply your plans and strategies. After the practice session is completed, take a few minutes to self-reflect, monitoring progress and refining future practice goals and strategies based on your findings. In the performance phase, use the principles of deliberate practice to further refine your practice actions and strategies, as well as internalizing the feedback of a skilled teacher and/or recordings to focus your efforts. In short, practice that is deliberate and self-regulated is more likely to lead to flow experiences, and by extension, higher quality practice.

Resources:

Araújo, Marcus V. and Christopher F. Hein. 2019. “A survey to investigate advanced musicians’ flow disposition in individual music practice.” International Journal of Music Education, 37(1), 107–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761418814563.

Bonneville-Roussy, Arielle and Thérèse T. Bouffard. 2015. “When quantity is not enough: Disentangling the roles of practice time, self-regulation and deliberate practice in musical achievement.” Psychology of Music, 43(5), 686–704. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735614534910.

Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. 1975. Beyond Boredom and Anxiety. Jossey-Bass Publishers.

dos Santos Silva, C., & Helena Marinho. 2024. “Self-regulated learning processes of advanced musicians: A PRISMA review.” Musicae Scientiae, 29(1), 89–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/10298649241275614.

Ericsson, K. Anders, Ralf Th. Krampe, and Clemens Tesch-Romer. 1993. “The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance.” Psychological Review, 100(3): 363–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363.

Ericsson, Anders and Kyle W. Harwell. 2019. “Deliberate Practice and Proposed Limits on the Effects of Practice on the Acquisition of Expert Performance: Why the Original Definition Matters and Recommendations for Future Research.” Frontiers in Psychology, 10(1): https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02396.

Zimmerman, Barry J. 2002. “Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner: An Overview.” Theory Into Practice, 41: 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2.

The first decision is whether to take the exacting transcription approach, a more flexible version of this, or choose to create an arrangement of the work to better adapt it to a different idiom. To decide on this, I listened to many versions of BWV 1001, first in its original instrumentation, and then for guitar, as well as other instrumental configurations, all along with the score. After exploring these options, I surprised myself by choosing the transcription approach.

Although I am generally in favor of the arrangement approach when performing the Cello Suites (and wrote my masters thesis on this topic, which can be found here: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/hc_sas_etds/698/), the tuning of the violin does result in the music more naturally falling under the fingers on guitar. Indeed, the violin’s tuning of G D A E is the same as the bottom four strings of the guitar, from highest to lowest in pitch. As a result, I decided on the transcription approach.

However, because the guitar does have two extra strings as compared to the violin, I added several bass or harmony notes at moments of musical emphasis. These moments of emphasis were decided through harmonic and phrase-level musical analysis. Otherwise, I am playing this work nearly exactly as it is written in the violin score.

An additional consideration is how to express the slurs on guitar, and whether to do so exactly as they are written. This proves to be an interesting dilemma, as it is not always practical on guitar to interpret these literally via hammering on ascending notes or pulling off descending notes. Instead of taking a literal approach to this, I decided on a more flexible course of action, interpreting the slurs literally when practical or musically congruent, and plucking the notes at other instances. While this is by no means stylistically correct from a purist standpoint, I think it makes for a musically interesting while also readily playable interpretation.

I look forward to continuing my work on this music and writing future posts on upcoming movements of the work as well. I would also welcome your thoughts and feedback, especially if you have any insights on additional considerations for interpreting and performing J. S. Bach’s music for violin on guitar.

Resources:

Bach, Johann Sebastian. 1720. “Violin Sonata No.1 in G minor, BWV 1001.” International Music Score Library Project. https://imslp.org/wiki/Violin_Sonata_No.1_in_G_minor%2C_BWV_1001_(Bach%2C_Johann_Sebastian).

Cole, Christa. 2024. “Hands, Fingers, Strings, and Bows: Performance Technique and Analysis in J.S. Bach’s Largo for Solo Violin.” Music Theory Online, 30(3). https://doi.org/10.30535/mto.30.3.1.

Harb, Tariq. 2014. “The Unlimited Guitar: Arranging Bach and Britten as Means to Repertoire Expansion.” DMA diss., University of Toronto. https://utoronto.scholaris.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/7c8432e8-93c1-4f11-8296-17442f1add30/content.

Koonce, Frank. 2013. “Playing Bach on the Guitar.” Strings By Mail. https://www.stringsbymail.com/articles/playing-bach-on-the-guitar-by-frank-koonce-strings-by-mail/?srsltid=AfmBOooylnhQIfelvBZmpNewTPYA2LDusnUXfO-DWD2JK87Zy5X04V_M/.

Koonce, Frank, and Heather DeRome. 2019. “Interpreting Bach’s Violin Slurs.” Sonatas & Partitas. https://www.sonatasandpartitas.com/articles/?selected=article_detail&id=21&nomenu=t&resultpage=2.

Riley, Benjamin. “Transcription as Interpretation: Comparison of the Anna Magdalena Bach Manuscript and John W. Duarte Arrangement of Cello Suite No. 3 by Johann Sebastian Bach.” Soundboard Magazine 51, no. 4 (2025).

Riley, Benjamin. “Lost in Translation? A Comparison of the Anna Magdalena Bach Manuscript and John W. Duarte Arrangement of Cello Suite No. 3, BWV 1009 by Johann Sebastian Bach.” Master’s thesis, Hunter College – CUNY, New York, 2021. CUNY Academic Works School of Arts & Sciences Theses. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/hc_sas_etds/698/.

Yates, Stanley. 1998. “Bach’s Unaccompanied String Music: A New (Old) Approach to Stylistic and Idiomatic Arrangement for the Guitar.” Classical Guitar Magazine, November 1998.

Keep previously learned repertoire in a rotation: I like to play through 1-2 previously learned pieces each time I practice, typically after warming up the right and left hands with scales and arpeggios and before beginning work on current repertoire projects. This way, when a performance is on the horizon (especially if this happens on relatively short notice), there are at least a few previously learned pieces that I have recently played through and could likely be performance-ready with some practice.

Plan ahead: When is the performance? Which pieces will you be performing? Are there any rehearsals to be aware of in addition to the performance? Will you be performing solo, as part of a duo or trio, with a group, or in an ensemble? Will the music be memorized, or will you perform from the music? With this information, you can then make an approximate timeline for when each piece needs to be ready for performance, get started playing through each entire piece, and then play through the pieces in the order in which they will be performed.

Play through larger sections of each piece: Gradually transition from granular practice of specific, short passages to playing through larger sections of each piece, ideally repeatedly playing through each entire piece without stopping in the weeks leading up to a performance. As you do so, notice how you feel as you play through each piece. Are there moments when you feel more tense, or are there repetitive passages where you tend to zone out or feel bored when practicing? Note these passages and find a way to reduce the tension (by playing the entire piece slightly slower, for example) or make them more musically interesting (perhaps there are some dynamic changes, individual voices to bring out, or different timbres to explore). If you make a mistake, keep going. Strive for a sense of active relaxation, where there is no excess tension, yet both hands are also ready to execute complex maneuvers at a moment’s notice. Finding this balance can be tricky to achieve at first, though it becomes easier with practice.

Visualization: Practicing without your instrument by reading the score and imagining yourself playing the piece, or visualizing this in your mind’s eye, imagining each detail, one after the next, and envisioning how the music sounds as every individual note or group of notes is played and each detail is completed.

Practice performing: Do several run-throughs of your entire set, as well as with any logistical factors that will be present in the performance (for example, greeting the audience, sitting or standing to perform, amplification, any remarks or commentary planned for before the performance, bowing after the performance is complete, etc.) If you can, see if you can play through the entire set of pieces for an audience before the performance, however small (this can be for family, friends, or even your pet!)

Finally, give yourself more time than you think you need, and don’t forget to enjoy the music you are performing!

Resources:

Garcia, Leonardo. “Category: Practice Performing.” Six String Journal. https://sixstringjournal.com/category/practice-performing/.

Powis, Simon. “Practicing for a Performance.” Classical Guitar Corner. https://www.classicalguitarcorner.com/practicing-for-a-performance/.

Small, Mark. “Guitar Recitals: Bill Kanengiser, Martha Masters, and Stephen Robinson Talk About the Art of Practice and Preparation.” Classical Guitar Magazine, Summer 2016. https://classicalguitarmagazine.com/guitar-recitals-bill-kanengiser-martha-masters-and-stephen-robinson-talk-about-the-art-of-practice-and-preparation/.

Finding answers to these questions is an ongoing journey, and I always enjoy learning more about both the art and science of practicing. That being said, in the interest of sharing some of what I’ve learned about practicing in ways that can be both effective and enjoyable, here are a few ideas that I try to instill in my own practicing and teach to my students:

• Start with why you wanted to learn classical guitar and make sure you can identify how what you practice works toward this. For example, I wanted to learn classical guitar because I loved the expressive sound of the instrument and felt that if I developed my technical abilities, I could work toward creating this sound. Reminding yourself of why you wanted to learn the instrument in the first place helps connect the dots between what we are working on now and how this helps us get closer to where we want to go.

• Set goals that are clear, specific, and personally meaningful. There are many ways to do this (SMART goals, for example), but the main idea is to know what your goals are, why you are pursuing them, and then work backwards from there to develop a strategy for achieving these goals.

• Focus on what you can do, not on what you wish you could do but can’t do (yet). Learning classical guitar is a marathon, not a sprint. You cannot always control the outcome and you probably won’t be able to play Asturias perfectly on your very first try, but you can choose to enjoy the journey by taking a growth mindset and placing your attention on how you can direct your efforts toward finding effective strategies that help you achieve your goals, one small step at a time.

• Create an enjoyable environment for practicing. This doesn’t have to be elaborate, and could be as simple as keeping your instrument and music stand in a visible area that you will pass by each day. This will both remind you to practice and make the decision to practice easier. Instead of having to remember where you put your instrument and music, it’s already there and ready for you to begin. If you enjoy tea or coffee, making a tea or coffee before practicing can create a positive association between practicing and another enjoyable activity.

• Allow time for improvising and/or composing: We’re often so used to playing what is written on the score that we can forget to take a more spontaneous approach and just play whatever we want and see where it leads us. Far from being a diversion, improvising or composing actually increases our familiarity with the instrument, overall musical proficiency, and is just plain fun!

• Journal your progress: Take a few minutes, whether before or after each practice session, once a week, or once every month or quarter to make note of what you practiced, how it went (both positive aspects and challenges), and what you achieved. You will be pleasantly surprised how far you have come!

I hope these ideas have been interesting to consider and helpful for your musical journey. Happy practicing!

These elements commence from the very beginning of the piece and include placing the melody in different string sets (mm. 1-2 and 17-18), achieving contrasts in timbre, and ending the piece with natural and artificial harmonics accompanied by open strings (mm. 37-40). The low E string is dropped to D, further deepening the sound and lending a more dramatic resonance to the piece, which is contrasted by answering phrases in F major, the relative major (see measures 1-4, in D minor and mm. 5-12, in F major). The harmonies are mostly diatonic to the key of D minor, with the inclusion of chords from the relative major, as well as secondary dominants adding forward momentum at points of emphasis (for example, in mm. 9-17). 

From a technical standpoint, this piece challenges the guitarist to refine their left hand shifting, left hand slurs, and legato playing techniques. Studied alongside the Estudios of Fernando Sor and Preludes of Villa-Lobos and Leo Brouwer, Tárrega’s Preludes provide students with a comprehensive musical and tactile understanding of the guitar’s capabilities. This is demonstrated from the very first Prelude, which combine several musical and technical elements to form a piece that is both highly musical and pedagogically robust, with nuances that extend far beyond specific levels of technical ability. 

Resources:

IMSLP. “Prelude No. 1 (Tárrega, Francisco).” Accessed November 3, 2024. https://imslp.org/wiki/Prelude_No.1_(T%C3%A1rrega%2C_Francisco).

Tárrega, Francisco. Edited by Karl Scheit. “Tárrega: Complete Preludes for Guitar.” Universal Edition. https://www.universaledition.com/en/Tarrega-Complete-Preludes-for-guitar/P0292836.

In his collection of music for the vihuela (a close relative to the early five course guitar) published in 1538, Luis de Narvaez included several adaptations of movements from masses originally written by Josquin des Prez. Nearly two hundred years later (in 1732), Santiago de Murcia adapted violin works by Arcangelo Corelli for five course guitar. The nineteenth century saw an influx of guitar arrangements. Examples of this development include Mauro Giuliani’s guitar arrangements of pieces from Rossini operas for guitar (published in 1820); guitar arrangements of Schubert lieder by Johann Kaspar Mertz approximately two decades later; and Justin Holland’s mid to late nineteenth century arrangements of arias and airs from operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Gioachino Rossini, and other notable composers (Fojas 2017; Holland 1888; Tyler and Sparks 2002).

The increased interest in J. S. Bach’s music during this time also influenced new additions to the guitar repertoire. For instance, in the late nineteenth century, Francisco Tárrega made one of the first notable guitar arrangements of J.S. Bach’s music. Specifically, Tárrega arranged the Fugue in G Minor, BWV 1000; the Bourrées from Violin Partita No. 1 in B Minor, BWV 1002; and the Bourrées from Cello Suite No. 3, BWV 1009 for guitar. Several of Tárrega’s students, most notably Emilio Pujol and Miguel Llobet, also adapted works by Bach for guitar, such as Pujol’s transcription of the Fugue from BWV 1005 and Llobet’s transcription of the Sarabande from BWV 1002.

In the early twentieth century, Agustin Barrios arranged the Gavotte and Rondeau from Suite in E Major, BWV 1006a, followed in 1934 by Andrés Segovia’s landmark arrangement of the Chaconne from Violin Partita in D Minor, BWV 1004 (Fojas 2017; Wade 2012). In the late 1950’s, John Duarte created his arrangements of Cello Suite No. 1, BWV 1007 and Cello Suite No. 3, BWV 1009, which were published in 1965. A second edition of both works was published in 1982. More recently, Stanley Yates, Manuel Barrueco, and Jeffrey McFadden have also published or recorded guitar arrangements of the Cello Suites, BWV 1007 - 1012.

One of the key decisions for transcribers and arrangers when creating adaptations for guitar is whether to re-create the original work as closely as possible, or focus on making their adaptation idiomatic for guitar. In other words, to what extant should an adaptation be a note-for-note replication versus a creative and idiomatic interpretation of a work originally intended for a different instrument, tailored to the distinctive attributes of the guitar? It is ultimately a qualitative decision along a broad spectrum, one that every transcriber and arranger must make to some extent, and it is fascinating to explore the numerous approaches taken by composers and guitarists over the years, decades, and centuries.

Resources:

Duarte, John W. 1998. Andrés Segovia, as I Knew Him. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay Publications.

Fojas, Ivar-Nicholas. 2017. “J.S. Bach’s Suite in G Minor BWV 995: A Comparison of Manuscripts for Violoncello, Lute and Lute Intabulation as a Model for a Guitar Arrangement of the Suite in D Major BWV 1012.” DMA diss., University of Arizona. https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/624583.

Harb, Tariq. 2014. “The Unlimited Guitar: Arranging Bach and Britten as Means to Repertoire Expansion.” DMA diss., University of Toronto. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/68434.

Holland, Justin. 1888. Comprehensive Method for the Guitar. Boston, MA: Oliver Ditson Company.

Tyler, James, and Paul Sparks. 2002. The Guitar and Its Music: From the Renaissance to the Classical Era. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Wade, Graham. 2012. Traditions of the Classical Guitar. Richmond, UK: Overture Publishing.

Yates, Stanley. 1998. “Bach’s Unaccompanied String Music: A New (Old) Approach to Stylistic and Idiomatic Arrangement for the Guitar.” Classical Guitar Magazine, November 1998.

Thank you for joining me on this journey, and all best wishes for a wonderful New Year!

The unique timbres of the guitar are brought out by means of grace notes in measures 4, 11, 12, and 14, and the artful change of timbre in the melody to the 4th string in measure 13. This passage repeats the motive first introduced in measures 9-10, though now one octave lower and in a more resonant register of the instrument, before returning to the low treble register by moving up the 3rd string in measure 14 and ultimately landing on an Italian augmented sixth chord on the third beat. To see this more clearly, I have circled the melody on the 4^th string in measure 13 in green, changing to blue when the melody moves to the 3^rd string, and the chord circled in purple is the It+6 chord.

After this brief detour, we are headed back to the tonic via a I64 - V - I cadential pattern, which concludes the B section on a perfect authentic cadence.

Resources:

Hall, John. “Lágrima/Adelita, Tárrega - An Analysis.” Last modified May 16, 2012. https://johnhallguitar.com/blogs/blog/posts/6027713/lagrima-adelita-tarrega-an-analysis.

Powis, Simon. “Adelita & Lágrima.” Classical Guitar Corner. https://www.classicalguitarcorner.com/adelita-lagrima/.

Werner, Bradford. “Adelita (Mazurca) by Tárrega.” This Is Classical Guitar, 2017. https://www.thisisclassicalguitar.com/adelita-mazurca-tarrega-free-pdf-or-tab/.

While this piece may look relatively simple at first glance, playing it evenly and with all notes held for their full durations is a significant challenge. A study in suspensions, sequences, executing grace notes, and part-writing for guitar, this piece is truly more than meets the eye, on multiple levels. The piece is written in vocal chorale style, meaning that the motion and relationships between each voice is prioritized over thinking in terms of only melody and harmony. In other words, each part is written as if it can be sung. The harmonies consist of primarily diatonic chords and secondary dominants. Stepwise motion (in all voices) predominates, perhaps most notably in the bass, with lots of stepwise and small leap motion. Interpretive elements for the performer include balancing the volume of different voices, playing legato, and holding all voices for their full duration.

Resources:

Hall, John. “Harmony in Practice-Fernando Sor, Etude 8 Op. 6.” John Hall Guitar, March 7, 2011. https://johnhallguitar.com/blog/blog/harmony-in-practice-fernando-sor-etude-8-op-6.

Powis, Simon. “Sor Study 8 Opus 6 – A Look at Suspensions, Voice Leading, and Sequences.” Classical Guitar Corner. https://www.classicalguitarcorner.com/sor-study-8-opus-6-a-look-at-suspensions-voice-leading-and-sequences/.

Vardanyan, Gohar. “Etude no. 8, op 6 (no. 1 Segovia ed.) by Fernando Sor | Guitar Etudes with Gohar Vardanyan.” YouTube, May 21, 2020.

Werner, Bradford. “Sor Study No.8, Op.6 (Free PDF).” This Is Classical Guitar, 2015. https://www.thisisclassicalguitar.com/sor-study-no8-op6-free-pdf-tab/.

A hallmark of the piece is that non chord tones are often placed on the second beat. John Duarte’s arrangement transposes this movement from the original C major to A major, varies slur markings (primarily on the downbeat or eighth note offbeats), adds bass notes, fills out chords, and places harmonies mainly on the first and second beats, which further emphasizes these beats. These changes can be seen from the very first measure:

J.S. Bach’s Cello Suites have been interpreted in a myriad of ways, starting with Bach’s own adaptation of Cello Suite No. 5, BWV 1011 for lute (BWV 995) and the four surviving 18^th century sources of the Cello Suites. In the mid-19^th century, there was a “revival” of Bach’s music by Romantic Period composers Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann, and others. In the 20^th century, guitarist, Francisco Tárrega made a pioneering arrangement of many works by Bach, including BWV 1009, paving the way for Andrés Segovia to further popularize Bach’s music and bring it to the guitar community. In addition, Duarte’s arrangement is particularly significant, as this is the arrangement Segovia used as a basis for his interpretation.

By varying slur markings, adding bass and harmony notes, and sometimes varying octave spacings, Duarte’s arrangement is (in my opinion) respectful of the earliest extant sources while also being idiomatic for guitar and musically satisfying to a contemporary audience. These adaptations can be readily seen by comparing and contrasting the Anna Magdalena Bach manuscript and John W. Duarte arrangement of Cello Suite No. 3: Sarabande, thus providing a framework from which to evaluate and/or arrange Bach’s music for other instruments.

Resources: 

Bach, Anna Magdalena. n.d. Six Cello Suites, BWV 1007 – 1012. Composed by Johann Sebastian Bach. Manuscript. https://imslp.org/wiki/6_Cello_Suites%2C_BWV_1007-1012_(Bach%2C_Johann_Sebastian).

Duarte, John W. 1982. Suite No. 3, BWV 1009 for Guitar (Original: Violoncello Solo). Composed by Johann Sebastian Bach. London: Schott. https://www.schott-music.com/en/suite-no-3-fuer-violoncello-noc49361.html.

Dumas, Marianne. “J.S. Bach Cello Suites.” Accessed Dec. 1, 2020. https://www.jsbachcellosuites.com/.

Wade, Graham. 2016. Traditions of the Classical Guitar. Richmond, UK: Overture Publishing. https://almabooks.com/product/traditions-of-the-classical-guitar/.

Winold, Allen. 2007. Bach’s Cello Suites: Analyses and Explorations. Terre Haute, IN: Indiana University Press.

Wolff, Christoph. 1999. The New Bach Reader: A Life of Johann Sebastian Bach in Letters and Documents. Edited by Arthur Mendel, Hans T. David. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.

Having been recorded by Segovia, these pieces became widely performed, and ultimately a part of the core repertory taught and learned by classical guitarists around the world. How Segovia found these pieces is not definitively known; it is possible that one of his colleagues or students made him aware of these works, though this continues to be debated. In any case, Segovia and his followers brought these pieces from relative obscurity to being well-recognized in the classical guitar community, a status they continue to enjoy to this day.

Each of the six pieces has a title in Italian:

No. 1: Moderato. Vaghe belleze et bionde treccie d’oro vedi che per ti moro (O vague, blonde beauty whose golden tresses I see, I would die for you). By an anonymous composer.

No. 2 - Allegro. Bianco fiore (White flower). Likely by Cesare Negri (c.1535–c.1604).

No. 3 - Moderato. Danza (dance). By an anonymous composer.

No. 4 - Andante. Gagliarda (Galliard). By an anonymous composer.

No. 5 - Largo. Se io m’accorgo (If I might become aware). By an anonymous composer.

No. 6 - Presto. Saltarello (to leap or jump). By Vincenzo Galilei.

Resources

Patykula, John. “Treasures from the Past: Chilesotti’s ‘Six Lute Pieces of the Renaissance’ (Guitar Transcription Included).” Classical Guitar Magazine, Stories (no date). https://classicalguitarmagazine.com/treasures-from-the-past-chilesottis-six-lute-pieces-of-the-renaissance-guitar-transcription-included/.

Wade, Graham. Traditions of the Classical Guitar. Overture Publishing, 1980. https://almabooks.com/product/traditions-of-the-classical-guitar/?imprintname=Overture%20Publishing.

Performances:

Sor also wrote a guitar method. This work, titled Méthode pour la Guitare, which is an exposition of Sor’s musical philosophy as it is a method for learning how to play the classical guitar. His pedagogical approach favors the use of reason and critical thinking. Sor focuses on providing the student with tools to then learn and think for themselves. These tools include learning music theory, harmony, counterpoint, and basic musicianship skills. He advocates learning these skills alongside the technical skills that are specific to guitar. Sor’s method also demonstrates his approach to fingering, which is based on the intervals of thirds and sixths.

Sor was not the first guitarist to write complex music for the guitar or elevate its status. His approach was likely influenced by past guitarist/composers such as de Murcia, Moretti, and Basilio, as well as Haydn and Mozart. However, what sets Sor apart is that he was one of the few guitarists of his time to combine these influences into a musical and pedagogical approach that challenged assumptions and perceptions surrounding the instrument. In doing so, he helped pave the way for the guitar to be taken seriously as a formidable instrument in its own right.

Resources:

Heck, Thomas F., Harvey Turnbull, Paul Sparks, James Tyler, Tony Bacon, Oleg V. Timofeyey, and Gerhard Kubik. “Guitar.” Grove Music Online. Edited by Deane Root. https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.

Page, Christopher. “New light on the London years of Fernando Sor (1815–1822).” Early Music 41, no. 4 (November 2013): 557-569.

Ribiero Alves, Júlio. “The History of the Guitar: Its Origins and Evolution.” Marshall Digital Scholar (Fall 2015): 1-169.

Sor, Fernando. Method for the Spanish Guitar. London, UK: Tecla Editions, 2003.

Wade, Graham. Traditions of the Classical Guitar. Richmond, UK: Overture Publishing, 2012.

The A section is in E major, has a lyrical melody, and follows a typical antecedent – consequent phrase structure. The B section is of contrasting character in both content and key. It is in E minor, the parallel minor of E major, and the melody travels into the higher positions of the fretboard. However, it also follows the antecedent – consequent phrase structure of the A section. After the conclusion of the B section, the A section is repeated to end the piece.                                     

Lágrima, A section (measures 1 – 4):

Lágrima, B section (measures 9 – 12):

The short length and lyrical melody of this piece showcase Tárrega’s compositional style, and the ternary form, clear phrases, and consistent antecedent – consequent phrase structure show his understanding of traditional classical forms. His use of same-string shifts to the higher positions of the fretboard creates a warmer and more resonant sound, which was made possible by the revolutionary innovations of Spanish luthier, Antonio de Torres. This is also an instance of idiomatic writing for the instrument, deftly utilizing the unique characteristics of the guitar.

In addition, the evocative title and alleged backstory of a homesick Tárrega pining for the customs of his home country shows the influence of program music, a popular musical trend throughout the nineteenth century. As can be seen in Lágrima, Tárrega viewed the guitar much like a piano, performing the melody, accompaniment, and inner voices simultaneously, each part contributing to his broader musical vision.

Resources for further information on Lágrima, Tárrega, and his music:

Heck, Thomas F. “Tárrega (y Eixea), Francisco.” Grove Music Online. Edited by Deane Root. Accessed Accessed 26 July, 2020. https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.

Pujol, Emilio, Patrick Burns, ed. The Biography of Francisco Tarrega. Translated by Jessica Burns. New Mexico: Chilitones Music Publishing, 2009.

Ribiero Alves, Júlio. “The History of the Guitar: Its Origins and Evolution.” Marshall Digital Scholar (Fall 2015): 1-169. https://mds.marshall.edu/music_faculty/19/.

Tárrega, Francisco. Lagrima – Preludio by Tarrega. Prepared from the autographs and earliest printed sources by Bradford Werner. Rev. Ed. Victoria, BC: Werner Guitar Editions, 2017. https://www.thisisclassicalguitar.com/lagrima-by-tarrega-free-pdf/

Wade, Graham. Traditions of the Classical Guitar. Richmond, UK: Overture Publishing, 2012.

The Air that I will briefly analyze here has been arranged for guitar by Frederick Noad in his book Solo Guitar Playing - Book 1. It possesses a somber and introspective character, and consists of two contrasting parts, each of which is repeated. Perhaps because this piece was originally written for lute, the chord voicings utilized are more reminiscent of the lute than the modern guitar. In particular, this can be seen in the unusually widely spread chord voicings, with several chords spanning two to three octaves from the lowest to highest notes, in addition to intervals in excess of an octave between adjacent voices. I recently recorded this piece on my YouTube channel, Ben Guitar Music, which can be viewed here:

References:

Holman, Peter and Paul O’Dette. “Dowland, John.” Grove Music Online. Edited by Deane Root. Accessed April 30, 2023. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com. 

Noad, Frederick. Solo Guitar Playing - Book 1. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Music Sales America, 2008. https://www.halleonard.com/product/14023147/solo-guitar-playing-book-1-4th-edition.

Pavan No. 1 is the first of six Pavans in Milan’s collection of vihuela music. A Pavan is a moderately slow European processional dance, and this Pavan is no exception, featuring a stately and assertive character. It begins with a bold opening phrase (m. 1–8) that is contrasted with a more lyrical and reserved second phrase beginning in the relative major key of C major, before concluding on an A major chord in measure 15. The third phrase builds on the melodic and harmonic content of the second phrase, moving the piece back toward the relative major, where it mostly stays until measure 47, which repeats the cadence to an A major chord. The piece ends with a slight variation on the second phrase, which builds to a robust finish on an A major chord.

There is some ambiguity regarding the key of this piece: the key signature has no accidentals and the opening chord is an A chord with no third, followed by a few alternations between the E and A minor chords, pointing toward the key of A minor. However, there are several points in the piece (such as mm. 15-16, 49-50, and, perhaps most notably, m. 56-57) in which the E chord (functioning as a dominant) resolves not to an A minor chord but to an A major chord. This is known as a Picardy third ('Picardy' referring to a region in France or the old French 'picart,' meaning pointed), which is when a major chord with a tonic root appears in place of the expected tonic minor chord at the end of a piece. This is why it is noteworthy that the piece ends on this chord, further pointing toward the presence of a Picardy third, a relatively frequent addition to the end of a Renaissance or Baroque Period piece, though not necessarily the ending we might expect.

Resources:

Milan, Luis. Libro de Música de Vihuela de mano. IMSLP. Link: https://imslp.org/wiki/Libro_de_M%C3%BAsica_de_Vihuela_de_mano_(Mil%C3%A1n%2C_Luis.

Warner, Bradford. "Six Pavans by Luis de Milán for Guitar." This Is Classical Guitar, 2020. Link: https://www.thisisclassicalguitar.com/six-pavans-luis-de-milan-guitar/.

The flexibility and ambiguity inherent in this piece also applies to some details of its historical background. The exact date in which the piece was written is not definitively known, with the general consensus being approximately between 1735-1740. The instrumentation of this piece was indicated on the original manuscript to be for lute or harpsichord (the autograph manuscript has sold for more than 2.5 million euros – see the following link for details and a very cool video which shows the manuscript: https://www.christies.com/features/Johann-Sebastian-Bach-autograph-manuscript-7497-3.aspx). However, there is much scholarly debate as to whether or not the piece was actually intended for lute, as some lutenists and scholars have found the idiomatic compositional style more suited for harpsichord than lute. Regardless of its original instrumentation, this is an excellent and beautiful piece that has become a staple of the classical guitar repertory.

Several noteworthy features include nearly constant forward motion rhythmically (except for measure 40 and 48), the use of all closely related keys (the piece is in D Major and modulates to A Major, e minor, b minor, f# minor, G Major, and even uses the key of g minor, which is the parallel minor of the subdominant). The form of the piece involves the theme or main musical idea being repeated and varied in different keys in between short musical statements that appear to be both related and distinct from the main idea. In addition, the piece utilizes several pedal tones on the tonic, a couple of memorable bass lines that are repeated with small variation in order to accommodate the current key (the bass line in measures 4-5 repeats in mm 17-18, 23-25, 36-38; and the bass line in measures 11-13 repeats with slight variation in mm 30-33).

Big picture analysis: the theme or main idea appears in measures 1-5 (D Major), 6-8 (A Major), 14-18 (b minor), 25-27 (G Major), and 42-44 (D Major), with a Coda from measures 45-48 in the tonic key.

Phrases and cadences: mm 1-6 (IAC), 6-11 (IAC), 11-14 (IAC), 14-19 (IAC), 19-25 (IAC), 25-30 (IAC), 30-33 (HC), 33-38 (IAC), 38-42 (PAC), 42-48 (IAC with a 4-3 suspension).

Pedal tones: mm 1-4 (D), 6-9 (A), 14-17 (B), 25-28 (G), 42-46 (D).

I hope you enjoyed this brief analysis of BWV 998: Prelude! Please feel free to reach out with any comments, questions, suggestions, or insights relating to this piece or analyzing Bach in general, as there are many aspects of Bach’s music that can yet be discovered and explored.

See below for some fascinating and informative sources regarding this piece and Bach’s Lute Suites in general: 

Christie’s. “A Piece of Musical History.” Books & Manuscripts. Last Modified July 11, 2016. https://www.christies.com/features/Johann-Sebastian-Bach-autograph-manuscript-7497-3.aspx.

Hall, John. “Prelude Analysis, BWV 998 by J.S. Bach.” Last Modified January 3rd, 2013. https://johnhallguitar.com/blog/blog/prelude-analysis-bwv-998-by-j-s-bach.

Johnson, Blair. “Prelude, Fugue and Allegro, for lute in E flat major, BWV 998.” AllMusic. https://www.allmusic.com/composition/prelude-fugue-and-allegro-for-lute-in-e-flat-major-bwv-998-bc-l132-mc0002369008.

Titmuss, Clive. “The Myth of Bach’s Lute Suites.” This Is Classical Guitar. Guest Post, 2015. https://www.thisisclassicalguitar.com/bachs-lute-suites-clive-titmuss/.

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