<script data-pm-proxy="intercept"></script><?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" version="2.0" xmlns:itunes="http://www.itunes.com/dtds/podcast-1.0.dtd" xmlns:googleplay="http://www.google.com/schemas/play-podcasts/1.0"><channel><title><![CDATA[Cross and Crescent]]></title><description><![CDATA[Cross and Crescent is all about medieval Iberia, tracing the history, architecture, politics, and religious life of a peninsula shaped by Christian, Islamic, and Jewish communities in contact and conflict, published in English and Spanish.]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com</link><image><url>https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pIEf!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc100c467-97df-4576-884b-adfcfe4b9ca3_1280x1280.png</url><title>Cross and Crescent</title><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com</link></image><generator>Substack</generator><lastBuildDate>Tue, 01 Sep 2026 18:34:52 GMT</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/feed" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><copyright><![CDATA[CrossAndCrescent]]></copyright><language><![CDATA[en]]></language><webMaster><![CDATA[cruzycreciente@substack.com]]></webMaster><itunes:owner><itunes:email><![CDATA[cruzycreciente@substack.com]]></itunes:email><itunes:name><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></itunes:name></itunes:owner><itunes:author><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></itunes:author><googleplay:owner><![CDATA[cruzycreciente@substack.com]]></googleplay:owner><googleplay:email><![CDATA[cruzycreciente@substack.com]]></googleplay:email><googleplay:author><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></googleplay:author><itunes:block><![CDATA[Yes]]></itunes:block><item><title><![CDATA[The Gregorian Turn in Castile-León, Part 2: From Tolerance to Uniformity]]></title><description><![CDATA[How four decades of accommodation gave way to Rome's forced arrival in Arag&#243;n, 1031&#8211;1074.]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-gregorian-turn-in-castile-leon-9aa</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-gregorian-turn-in-castile-leon-9aa</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 27 Aug 2026 17:02:19 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pbXm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36e4349a-9a23-4270-b69f-eb82ed9b1278_3484x2604.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pbXm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36e4349a-9a23-4270-b69f-eb82ed9b1278_3484x2604.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pbXm!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F36e4349a-9a23-4270-b69f-eb82ed9b1278_3484x2604.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pbXm!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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style="text-align: center;"><strong>The Gregorian Turn in Castile-Le&#243;n: Chronology, Conflict, and the Collapse of the Mozarabic Tradition</strong></h1><h1 style="text-align: center;">An Eight-Part Series</h1><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 1: Introduction and The Problems of Defining the &#8220;Mozarabic Rite&#8221;</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 2: Changing Attitudes Toward the Mozarabic Rite Before Gregorian Reform (1031&#8211;1074)</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 3: Gregory VII&#8217;s Iberian Project: Liturgical Reform, Political Ambition, and the Struggle for Ecclesiastical Control (1073&#8211;1077) a. Gregory VII&#8217;s Claims of Papal Ownership over Iberia b. The Political Misunderstandings of Gregory VII about Alfonso VI</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 4: The Decisive Years of the Roman Rite&#8217;s Imposition in the Kingdoms of Alfonso VI (1074&#8211;Early 12th Century) a. The Cluniac Framework: Reform, Royal Patronage, and Liturgical Foundations b. Struggles for the Bishopric of Oca-Burgos: Mu&#241;o&#8217;s Fall, Jimeno&#8217;s Rise, and the Threat of Assassination (1074&#8211;1076)</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 5: Castilian Opposition and the Will of the King in 1077</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 6: Liturgical Disorder and Monastic Realignment: The Sahag&#250;n Affair, 1079&#8211;1080</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 7: The Council of Burgos and Beyond: Centralization, Monastic Realignment, and the Unfinished Reform (1080&#8211;Early 12th Century)</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 8: Conclusion and Bibliography</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yBPw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2813d82e-ad9b-45f8-bc8c-dac872a54b8d_3024x2268.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yBPw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2813d82e-ad9b-45f8-bc8c-dac872a54b8d_3024x2268.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yBPw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2813d82e-ad9b-45f8-bc8c-dac872a54b8d_3024x2268.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yBPw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2813d82e-ad9b-45f8-bc8c-dac872a54b8d_3024x2268.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yBPw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2813d82e-ad9b-45f8-bc8c-dac872a54b8d_3024x2268.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yBPw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2813d82e-ad9b-45f8-bc8c-dac872a54b8d_3024x2268.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2813d82e-ad9b-45f8-bc8c-dac872a54b8d_3024x2268.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yBPw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2813d82e-ad9b-45f8-bc8c-dac872a54b8d_3024x2268.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yBPw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2813d82e-ad9b-45f8-bc8c-dac872a54b8d_3024x2268.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yBPw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2813d82e-ad9b-45f8-bc8c-dac872a54b8d_3024x2268.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h2 style="text-align: center;"><span>Changing Attitudes Toward the Mozarabic Rite Before Gregorian Reform (1031-1074)</span></h2><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The <em>Chronicle of San Juan de la Pe&#241;a</em> offers a vivid account of the abrupt and systematized liturgical transformation enacted at what was arguably the most important monastic house in eleventh-century Arag&#243;n:</p><blockquote><p style="text-align: justify;">And then the Roman law entered into San Juan de la Pe&#241;a, on the 22nd of March (the eleventh day before the Kalends of April), in the second week of Lent, on Tuesday. At the first and third hours it was the Toledan [rite]; at the sixth hour it was the Roman [rite], in the year of the Lord 1071. And thereafter, the Roman law was observed.<a href="#_ftn1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a></p></blockquote><p style="text-align: justify;">This chronicle captures the abrupt and deliberately orchestrated replacement of the native Hispanic liturgy by the Roman rite in one of Arag&#243;n&#8217;s most important monasteries. The shift, occurring within the span of a few hours, marks a dramatic moment of liturgical realignment.</p>
      <p>
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   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Gregorian Turn in Castile-León, Part 1: Defining the "Mozarabic Rite"]]></title><description><![CDATA[A look at why the term "Mozarabic rite" is harder to define than it seems, opening an eight-part account of liturgical reform and conflict in eleventh-century Castile-Le&#243;n.]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-gregorian-turn-in-castile-leon</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-gregorian-turn-in-castile-leon</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 20 Aug 2026 17:00:55 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VDK-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b88139a-ce81-413b-887c-0dc6405f039a_3024x2268.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VDK-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b88139a-ce81-413b-887c-0dc6405f039a_3024x2268.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VDK-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b88139a-ce81-413b-887c-0dc6405f039a_3024x2268.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VDK-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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style="text-align: center;"><strong>The Gregorian Turn in Castile-Le&#243;n: Chronology, Conflict, and the Collapse of the Mozarabic Tradition</strong></h1><h1 style="text-align: center;">An Eight-Part Series</h1><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 1: Introduction and The Problems of Defining the &#8220;Mozarabic Rite&#8221;</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 2: Changing Attitudes Toward the Mozarabic Rite Before Gregorian Reform (1031&#8211;1074)</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 3: Gregory VII&#8217;s Iberian Project: Liturgical Reform, Political Ambition, and the Struggle for Ecclesiastical Control (1073&#8211;1077) a. Gregory VII&#8217;s Claims of Papal Ownership over Iberia b. The Political Misunderstandings of Gregory VII about Alfonso VI</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 4: The Decisive Years of the Roman Rite&#8217;s Imposition in the Kingdoms of Alfonso VI (1074&#8211;Early 12th Century) a. The Cluniac Framework: Reform, Royal Patronage, and Liturgical Foundations b. Struggles for the Bishopric of Oca-Burgos: Mu&#241;o&#8217;s Fall, Jimeno&#8217;s Rise, and the Threat of Assassination (1074&#8211;1076)</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 5: Castilian Opposition and the Will of the King in 1077</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 6: Liturgical Disorder and Monastic Realignment: The Sahag&#250;n Affair, 1079&#8211;1080</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 7: The Council of Burgos and Beyond: Centralization, Monastic Realignment, and the Unfinished Reform (1080&#8211;Early 12th Century)</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 8: Conclusion and Bibliography</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QwnC!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff304c60a-dfc1-410b-86fe-3c46fa94f362_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div 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style="text-align: center;">Introduction</h1><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The replacement of the Mozarabic rite in Castile-Le&#243;n has long been misremembered as a tidy reform enacted at the Council of Burgos in 1080. But this view masks a far more complex and turbulent process&#8212;one marked not by consensus but by conflict, not by deliberation but by decree. When we read the surviving sources closely&#8212;especially the papal Register of Gregory VII&#8212;we find a story of ideological pressure, episcopal rivalry, and covert resistance: a story in which a bishop may have faced assassination by poison, in which forgeries of papal letters circulated in defense of the old liturgy, and in which ritual itself became a battleground between competing visions of legitimacy.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This study reconstructs that story in full. It offers the first sustained chronological account of the Roman rite&#8217;s imposition in Castile-Le&#243;n, traced through primary sources&#8212;from its earliest footholds in the 1030s to the reform&#8217;s consolidation in the early twelfth century. While previous scholarship has often treated the subject in fragments&#8212;isolating episodes like the Council of Burgos, the ordeal by fire, or the monastic crisis at Sahag&#250;n&#8212;this work stitches those moments into a continuous narrative. It begins not at Burgos, but with the arrival of Roman liturgical customs through extra-Pyrenean channels and follows the unfolding tensions across episcopal rivalries in Oca-Burgos, monastic realignments at Sahag&#250;n, and the ideological struggles articulated in papal correspondence.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The heart of this project lies in a new method of reading Gregory VII&#8217;s Register: not as isolated statements, but as part of a coherent and escalating campaign. Every letter from Gregory that touches Castile-Le&#243;n is carefully analyzed, with extended excerpts presented in both Latin and English. The side-by-side form of translation allow the reader to engage deeply with the logic and language of reform as it was articulated by the most forceful papal voice of the eleventh century.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Equally important is the dialogue this project creates between English and Spanish scholarship. While English-language studies have rarely treated the Mozarabic rite in depth, Spanish-language historians have developed rich but often isolated analyses. This study brings those conversations together&#8212;synthesizing the most careful research in both languages while introducing original interpretations that reframe our understanding of the period. For historians seeking a reliable, detailed, and up-to-date account of liturgical change in medieval Iberia, this work provides both foundation and provocation.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">At the outset, this study also confronts a persistent problem of terminology. The phrase <em>Mozarabic rite</em> has long been used to describe the Latin liturgies preserved in al-Andalus and northern Christian territories alike&#8212;but the term is misleading. In the early modern period, Cardinal Cisneros&#8217;s sixteenth-century revival produced a uniform and printed liturgy, created from a patchwork of remaining Toledan Mozarabic sources and the Roman rite. That product has little in common with the diverse, fluid, and locally transmitted traditions that defined Iberian liturgy in the central Middle Ages. This work retains the term for the sake of orientation but insists on its historical and conceptual limitations.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Finally, this work centers resistance&#8212;not only as a political phenomenon but as a liturgical and spiritual one. Through close readings of royal charters, monastic chronicles, theological polemics, and Gregory VII&#8217;s correspondence, it traces how the imposition of the Roman rite was experienced, resisted, and negotiated. In many cases, what has been seen as apathy or compliance was in fact strategic ambiguity. The Castilian elite&#8212;episcopal and royal alike&#8212;used the rite as an instrument of control, colonization, and identity-formation but the communities affected did not always accept that transformation passively.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The chapters that follow move chronologically from the earliest signs of reform in the north to the climactic years 1074&#8211;1080, when King Alfonso VI, Pope Gregory VII, and their respective allies forced the issue of liturgical unity. The story does not end at Burgos. In fact, the idea that there was a single decisive council is challenged here. No acts survive. The sources suggest that the meeting in Burgos was not a moment of open debate, but an enactment of decisions already made&#8212;an extension of royal will, guided by papal legates, enforced from above.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">What you will find in this work, then, is not just a study of liturgy. It is a study of power, rhetoric, and identity, told through the lens of ritual. It is an attempt to reconstruct what it meant for reform to succeed, and for tradition to fracture, in the medieval Iberian world.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mHC-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mHC-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mHC-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mHC-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mHC-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mHC-!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/f79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1092,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:2275622,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/i/207217159?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mHC-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mHC-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mHC-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mHC-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff79bfda0-0a13-4c76-8e5a-b9d18d71e61c_3024x2268.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h1 style="text-align: center;">The Problems of Defining the &#8220;Mozarabic Rite&#8221;</h1>
      <p>
          <a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-gregorian-turn-in-castile-leon">
              Read more
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   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Great Mosque of Córdoba, Part 5: The Immortality of Form, Conclusion, and Bibliography]]></title><description><![CDATA[The conclusion to a five-part series on architectural charisma and religious power in the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba, tracing the mosque's afterlife in Christian sacred architecture]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 13 Aug 2026 17:02:22 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oNQE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F58b96d25-2d92-4eef-8f19-aafc71edaf84_3008x2000.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oNQE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F58b96d25-2d92-4eef-8f19-aafc71edaf84_3008x2000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oNQE!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F58b96d25-2d92-4eef-8f19-aafc71edaf84_3008x2000.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oNQE!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F58b96d25-2d92-4eef-8f19-aafc71edaf84_3008x2000.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oNQE!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F58b96d25-2d92-4eef-8f19-aafc71edaf84_3008x2000.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oNQE!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F58b96d25-2d92-4eef-8f19-aafc71edaf84_3008x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oNQE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F58b96d25-2d92-4eef-8f19-aafc71edaf84_3008x2000.jpeg" width="1456" height="968" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F58b96d25-2d92-4eef-8f19-aafc71edaf84_3008x2000.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oNQE!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F58b96d25-2d92-4eef-8f19-aafc71edaf84_3008x2000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;"><strong>The Immortality of Form: Architectural Charisma and Religious Power in the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba</strong> </h1><h1 style="text-align: center;">A Five-Part Series</h1><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 1: Introduction and Orthodoxy and Opposition: The Doctrinal Crisis of 10th-Century al-Andalus</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-b9b?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 2: Scripture in Stone: Qur&#8217;anic Inscriptions and Polemic in the Mosque of C&#243;rdoba </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-b9b?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix A)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-395?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 3: Apostasy and Architecture: &#703;Umar ibn &#7716;af&#7779;&#363;n and the Maq&#7779;&#363;ra&#8217;s Ideological Role </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-395?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix B)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-947?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 4: Appropriated Forms, Asserted Supremacy: Christian and Imperial Elements in the Mosque&#8217;s Design </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-947?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix C)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 5: Conclusion, The Immortality of Form: C&#243;rdoba&#8217;s Mosque and Its Christian Reincarnations <em>(includes Photo Appendix D) </em>and bibliography.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Note: This essay was written in the spring of 2025 while I was a student at Boston College. I&#8217;m now publishing it here, broken into a series of installments, so it can reach a wider</strong></em><strong> </strong><em><strong>audience. I have updated the photo appendix with photos I have taken since writing this essay.</strong></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Also note that this article is too long to read in an email client, it is a better experience to read it in your web browser.</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LUrw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F567d248b-251d-4537-bf12-7eef41846ced_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LUrw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F567d248b-251d-4537-bf12-7eef41846ced_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LUrw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F567d248b-251d-4537-bf12-7eef41846ced_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LUrw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F567d248b-251d-4537-bf12-7eef41846ced_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LUrw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F567d248b-251d-4537-bf12-7eef41846ced_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LUrw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F567d248b-251d-4537-bf12-7eef41846ced_4032x3024.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F567d248b-251d-4537-bf12-7eef41846ced_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LUrw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F567d248b-251d-4537-bf12-7eef41846ced_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">Mosque of Bab al-Mardum, Toledo</h6><h1 style="text-align: center;"><span>Conclusion, The Immortality of Form: C&#243;rdoba&#8217;s Mosque and Its Christian Reincarnations</span></h1><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">One of the central arguments of this paper has been that the architectural forms employed in the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba were timeless. Their significance extended beyond the moment of their creation, drawing from earlier Roman and Christian precedents and projecting influence far into the future. This continuity is visible not only in the traditions that preceded the mosque&#8217;s construction, but even more strikingly in the centuries following its conquest by Ferdinand III in 1236. As the preceding chapters have shown, the mosque&#8217;s distinctive forms like the domes of the maq&#7779;&#363;ra, the tripartite basilical layout, the horseshoe arches, were not abandoned but actively adopted and reimagined by Christian artisans. In doing so, these new patrons appropriated the architectural charisma of C&#243;rdoba&#8217;s mosque, integrating its visual power into the sacred and political language of Christian Iberia.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Indeed, so thorough was this appropriation that the boundaries between Christian and Islamic styles became increasingly indistinct. By the late Middle Ages, I would argue that many Castilians, especially those outside the elite scholarly or clerical classes, would not have recognized such architecture as distinctly &#8220;Islamic&#8221; at all. Instead, they could have perceived it naturally as <em>Castilian</em>, or at the least, generically <em>Iberian</em>. The mosque&#8217;s aesthetic legacy had become so embedded in the visual language of Christian Spain that its Islamic origins were often blurred, if not entirely forgotten.<a href="#_ftn1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> The architecture of power, in the &#8220;Islamic&#8221; style, had become the architecture of the realm.</p>
      <p>
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   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Burial of Isabel la Católica in the Alhambra]]></title><description><![CDATA[The history of the queen's first burial under muqarnas and how her tomb was moved to the Royal Chapel 17 years later.]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-burial-of-isabel-la-catolica</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-burial-of-isabel-la-catolica</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 10 Aug 2026 17:02:00 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!iB7L!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ff0d660-e33e-4e04-9581-551c3dd9c005_4032x3024.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oLHY!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd78c3ed6-0ba3-4ed9-89e3-383c99dff118_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oLHY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd78c3ed6-0ba3-4ed9-89e3-383c99dff118_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oLHY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd78c3ed6-0ba3-4ed9-89e3-383c99dff118_5712x4284.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oLHY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd78c3ed6-0ba3-4ed9-89e3-383c99dff118_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oLHY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd78c3ed6-0ba3-4ed9-89e3-383c99dff118_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oLHY!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd78c3ed6-0ba3-4ed9-89e3-383c99dff118_5712x4284.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd78c3ed6-0ba3-4ed9-89e3-383c99dff118_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oLHY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd78c3ed6-0ba3-4ed9-89e3-383c99dff118_5712x4284.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oLHY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd78c3ed6-0ba3-4ed9-89e3-383c99dff118_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oLHY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd78c3ed6-0ba3-4ed9-89e3-383c99dff118_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">The muqarnas of the burial site of Isabel and Fernando <a href="https://youtube.com/shorts/qFMfz1n2w3Y?feature=share">(click here to see it as if you were visiting in person here)</a></h6><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>English Version &#127482;&#127480;</strong></h1><h5 style="text-align: center;">La versi&#243;n en espa&#241;ol se encuentra abajo &#127466;&#127480;</h5><h2 style="text-align: center;"><strong>The Burial of Isabel la Cat&#243;lica in the Alhambra</strong></h2><p>The Convento de San Francisco has changed a lot over the past six centuries. The space was originally a Nasrid palace of the Alhambra that Isabel la Cat&#243;lica, the queen of Castile, designated to be her resting place. On October 12, 1504, she wrote in her will:</p><blockquote><p style="text-align: justify;">&#8220;&#8230;I will and command that my body be buried in the monastery of Saint Francis, which is in the Alhambra of the city of Granada, whether it be of friars or of nuns of the said order, clothed in the habit of the blessed poor man of Jesus Christ, Saint Francis, in a low grave having no effigy whatsoever, save a low, flat slab set in the ground, with its letters carved upon it&#8230;&#8221;<a href="#_ftn1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a></p></blockquote><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!daID!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!daID!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: justify;">Isabel died a month later on November 26, 1504 and was buried where she desired. San Francisco was not necessarily meant to be a permanent burial site. Isabel added a contingency in her will that if the king chose burial elsewhere, her body should be moved there.<a href="#_ftn2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a> Isabel lay in the Alhambra until she was moved in 1521 to the Capilla Real of Granada. Before the queen&#8217;s death, she and her husband Fernando had decided to build this chapel on the 13th and 30th of September in 1504.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg" width="750" height="512" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">The tombs of Isabel and Fernando in the Capilla Real of Granada&#8217;s Cathedral <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Chapel_of_Granada#/media/File:Granada-Capilla_Real-7-Sepulcro_de_los_Reyes_Cat%C3%B3licos_(Domenico_Fancelli).jpg">(source for photo)</a></h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Most historians like Mar&#237;a Cristina Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243; believe the Reyes Cat&#243;licos chose Granada because of the symbolism the city had acquired post-conquest in 1492.<span> </span>There is a stark contrast between the burial specified in her will and her final burial. In the Monastery of San Francisco, she desired no effigy. She wanted a simple and pious tomb. Meanwhile, the Royal Chapel of Granada houses her effigy on one of the most elaborate funerary monuments in Iberia, carved by Florentine sculptor Domenico Fancelli. It was even made of Carrara marble, quarried in Tuscany and transported to Granada. I find it a good representation of an Iberia transferring artistically from the Middle Ages (Islamic muqarnas for burial) to the Renaissance (marble from Italy for burial).</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!iB7L!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ff0d660-e33e-4e04-9581-551c3dd9c005_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!iB7L!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ff0d660-e33e-4e04-9581-551c3dd9c005_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, 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style="text-align: justify;">However, her burial was not ready, even after she was placed in her tomb in the Alhambra. As the writings of the German traveler M&#252;nzer show us, he noted that &#8220;after the king of Granada realized that he could not resist the most Christian king of Spain, he allowed many buildings to be destroyed&#8221; in the Alhambra.<a href="#_ftn3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a> As well, he wrote that when he visited on October 26, 1494 with the II Count of Tendilla, &#8220;we saw many Saracens already adorning and restoring the paintings and other things with their own refinement.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The palace Isabel eventually wanted to bury herself within had the same problem. It needed to be restored. A document in the Archivo General de Simancas recorded a payment by Queen Isabel on June 4, 1504 of &#8220;250,000 maraved&#237;es for the costs on the works of the monastery of San Francisco [&#8230;] of the city of Granada.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a> This payment was made even before she decided to bury herself there in her will. Whether this reflects ordinary upkeep or an early, unrecorded intention to bury herself there is impossible to say from the documents alone.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Even after the queen made this investment, it still wasn&#8217;t enough. The II Count of Tendilla, the man who received the queen&#8217;s body into the city, didn&#8217;t think the chapel looked good enough for a royal burial of a queen of Castile, and decided that it needed more care. He proposed:</p><blockquote><p style="text-align: justify;">&#8220;To pave the entire floor of the chapel with marble slabs. To gild and paint the whole ceiling of the chapel, which is presently of white muqarnas work. For the small chapels at the sides, which are very small, to have their ceilings made of well-wrought wood, richly painted and gilded. To make a well-fashioned iron grille for the principal arch of the Chapel, which may measure thirteen feet in the opening...&#8221;<a href="#_ftn6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a></p></blockquote><p style="text-align: justify;">Since he was in charge, after his death the II Count of Tendilla buried himself in the Monastery of San Francisco as well. After Isabel and Fernando were moved out of this space and into the Royal Chapel in 1521, the II Count of Tendilla was moved from the chapter chapel into the main chapel in 1523, where the Reyes Cat&#243;licos once lay. Since these two prestigious monarchs lay there until their permanent burial site was completed, the space under the muqarnas truly rose in prestige and became a desirable spot for the count to be buried. He even changed his mind about burying himself and his family in the Convento de Santa Ana de Mond&#233;jar, doing it in the Alhambra instead.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Let&#8217;s close with a few questions and answers. Why might the Catholic Monarchs have chosen to bury themselves in this space within the Alhambra? Why not the Monasterio de San Juan de los Reyes in Toledo like they had planned to do years before? There are two reasons for this.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The first is that there was a longstanding tradition of Iberian Christian kings burying themselves in conquered Muslim cities, especially the Friday mosques. We see Fernando III and Alfonso X buried in the former mosque of Sevilla. Alfonso VII, Sancho III, and Sancho IV were buried in the former mosque of Toledo. In the former mosque of Cordoba, Fernando IV and Alfonso XI were buried. Isabel and Fernando were buried in the Alhambra, the famous monumental site and later moved to the royal chapel of the cathedral, which was built on top of the old Friday mosque. What Isabel and Fernando did was not unusual in comparison to other kings of the same kingdoms they ruled.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The second reason is that the Christian monarchs of Iberia were accustomed to dressing in the splendor of the Andalus&#237; styles they patronized for centuries. Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243; wrote that the Castilian crown had a &#8220;growing admiration&#8221; towards &#8220;all that was Islamic as a paradigm of luxury and pomp that should always accompany the monarchy.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn7"><sup><span>[7]</span></sup></a> In other words, it was normal for the Castilian monarchy to dress like Muslim elites and also bury themselves underneath qubbas (domes) of the Islamic style, such as this dome of muqarnas which Isabel chose for her burial back in October of 1504.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">One last question to answer. What has happened since? Unfortunately for art historians, it is a difficult place to study because of ill-fated use of the space in the 19th century. In 1810 French troops used it as a barracks for their occupation of Spain during the Napoleonic Wars. Later, in 1945 it became a Parador Nacional de Turismo, still in use today. Because of reforms and interventions like this throughout history, we have lost the original look of the chapel. Yet as has been seen above, plenty of documentation allows us to historically reconstruct the use of the site.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg" width="1456" height="1941" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> &#8220;... quiero e mando que mi cuerpo sea sepultado en el monasterio de Sant Francisco, que es en la Alhambra de la &#231;ibdad de Granada seyendo de religiosos o de religiosas de dicha orden, vestida en el h&#225;bito del bienaventurado pobre de Jhesuchristo sant Francisco, en una sepultura baxa que no tenga vulto alguno salvo una losa baxa en el suelo llana con sus letras esculpidas en ella&#8230;&#8221; Antonio de la Torre y del Cerro, <em>Testamentar&#237;a de Isabel la Cat&#243;lica</em> (Barcelona: Vda. Fidel Rodr&#237;guez Ferr&#225;n, 1974), 63, quoted in Mar&#237;a Cristina Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial de las obras del convento de San Francisco de la Alhambra y el II conde de Tendilla,&#8221; <em>BSAA arte</em> 75 (2009): 75.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a> &#8220;... si el Rey mi se&#241;or, eligiere sepultura en cualquier otra Iglesia o Monasterio de cualquier otra parte o lugar de mis Reynos, que mi cuerpo sea all&#237; trasladado...&#8221; Torre y del Cerro, <em>Testamentar&#237;a</em>, 63, quoted in Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 78.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a> &#8220;el rey de Granada despu&#233;s que se dio cuenta de que no pod&#237;a resistir al cristian&#237;simo rey de Espa&#241;a, permiti&#243; que se derribasen muchos edificios&#8221; Jer&#243;nimo M&#252;nzer, &#8220;Viaje por Espa&#241;a y Portugal,&#8221; in <em>Viajes de extranjeros por Espa&#241;a y Portugal</em>, ed. Jos&#233; Garc&#237;a Mercadal, vol. 1 (Madrid, 1989), 38, quoted in Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 77.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a> &#8220;El 26 de octubre, cuando est&#225;bamos all&#237;, vimos a muchos sarracenos adornando ya y restaurando las pinturas y las dem&#225;s cosas con la finura propia suya&#8221; M&#252;nzer, &#8220;Viaje,&#8221; 39, quoted in Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 77.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a> &#8220;dozientos e cinqucnta mill maraved&#237;s para aquellos gastos en las obras del monasterio de san francisco [...] de la &#231;ibdad de Granada.&#8221; Archivo General de Simancas (AGS), Casas y Sitios Reales, leg. 4, f. 224, quoted in Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 79.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a> &#8220;solar de losas de m&#225;rmol todo el suelo de la capilla. Dorar y pintar todo el Cielo de la capilla que es de moc&#225;rabez blanco agora. A las capilletas de los lados traz&#225;rseles sus cielos de madera bien labrada y pintada y dorada ricamente que son muy peque&#241;as. Hazer una reja de hierro bien hecha para el arco principal de la Capilla que puede tener treze pies de hueco...&#8221; Szmolka Clar&#233;s, <em>Epistolario del conde de Tendilla (1504&#8211;1506)</em> (Granada, 1996), 218, quoted in Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 81.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref7"><sup><span>[7]</span></sup></a> Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 83.</p><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Versi&#243;n en Espa&#241;ol &#127466;&#127480;</strong></h1><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!oLHY!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd78c3ed6-0ba3-4ed9-89e3-383c99dff118_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Los muqarnas del lugar de enterramiento de Isabel y Fernando <a href="https://youtube.com/shorts/qFMfz1n2w3Y?feature=share">(haz clic aqu&#237; para verlo como si estuvieras visitando en persona aqu&#237;)</a></strong></h6><h2 style="text-align: center;"><strong>El entierro de Isabel la Cat&#243;lica en la Alhambra</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">El Convento de San Francisco ha cambiado mucho a lo largo de los &#250;ltimos seis siglos. El espacio fue originalmente un palacio nazar&#237; de la Alhambra que Isabel la Cat&#243;lica, la reina de Castilla, design&#243; como su lugar de descanso. El 12 de octubre de 1504, escribi&#243; en su testamento:</p><blockquote><p style="text-align: justify;">&#8220;... quiero e mando que mi cuerpo sea sepultado en el monasterio de Sant Francisco, que es en la Alhambra de la &#231;ibdad de Granada seyendo de religiosos o de religiosas de dicha orden, vestida en el h&#225;bito del bienaventurado pobre de Jhesuchristo sant Francisco, en una sepultura baxa que no tenga vulto alguno salvo una losa baxa en el suelo llana con sus letras esculpidas en ella&#8230;&#8221;<a href="#_ftn1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a></p></blockquote><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!daID!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!daID!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!daID!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!daID!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!daID!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!daID!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg" width="1456" height="1941" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!daID!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!daID!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!daID!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F310d3143-c668-4be6-8d29-f6484d67ccc0_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Isabel muri&#243; un mes despu&#233;s, el 26 de noviembre de 1504, y fue enterrada donde ella deseaba. San Francisco no estaba necesariamente destinado a ser un lugar de entierro permanente. Isabel a&#241;adi&#243; una cl&#225;usula contingente en su testamento seg&#250;n la cual, si el rey eleg&#237;a ser enterrado en otro lugar, su cuerpo deb&#237;a ser trasladado all&#237;.<a href="#_ftn2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a> Isabel permaneci&#243; en la Alhambra hasta que fue trasladada en 1521 a la Capilla Real de Granada. Antes de la muerte de la reina, ella y su esposo Fernando hab&#237;an decidido construir esta capilla el 13 y el 30 de septiembre de 1504.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 424w, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg" width="750" height="512" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vdqU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe7590817-b6a5-4215-9bbb-3dc4d6fbaff9_750x512.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Las tumbas de Isabel y Fernando en la Capilla Real de la Catedral de Granada <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Chapel_of_Granada#/media/File:Granada-Capilla_Real-7-Sepulcro_de_los_Reyes_Cat%C3%B3licos_(Domenico_Fancelli).jpg">(fuente de la foto)</a></h6><p style="text-align: justify;">La mayor&#237;a de los historiadores, como Mar&#237;a Cristina Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, creen que los Reyes Cat&#243;licos eligieron Granada por el simbolismo que la ciudad hab&#237;a adquirido tras la conquista de 1492. Existe un marcado contraste entre el entierro especificado en su testamento y su entierro final. En el Monasterio de San Francisco, ella no deseaba efigie alguna. Quer&#237;a una tumba sencilla y piadosa. Sin embargo, la Capilla Real de Granada alberga su efigie en uno de los monumentos funerarios m&#225;s elaborados de Iberia, tallado por el escultor florentino Domenico Fancelli. Incluso fue hecho de m&#225;rmol de Carrara, extra&#237;do en la Toscana y transportado a Granada. Me parece una buena representaci&#243;n de una Iberia en transici&#243;n art&#237;stica de la Edad Media (los moc&#225;rabes isl&#225;micos para el entierro) hacia el Renacimiento (el m&#225;rmol de Italia para el entierro).</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!iB7L!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ff0d660-e33e-4e04-9581-551c3dd9c005_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!iB7L!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ff0d660-e33e-4e04-9581-551c3dd9c005_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!iB7L!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5ff0d660-e33e-4e04-9581-551c3dd9c005_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: justify;">Sin embargo, su entierro no estaba listo, incluso despu&#233;s de haber sido colocada en su tumba en la Alhambra. Como muestran los escritos del viajero alem&#225;n M&#252;nzer, este se&#241;al&#243; que &#8220;el rey de Granada despu&#233;s que se dio cuenta de que no pod&#237;a resistir al cristian&#237;simo rey de Espa&#241;a, permiti&#243; que se derribasen muchos edificios&#8221; en la Alhambra.<a href="#_ftn3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a> Asimismo, escribi&#243; que, cuando visit&#243; el lugar junto con el II conde de Tendilla, &#8220;El 26 de octubre, cuando est&#225;bamos all&#237;, vimos a muchos sarracenos adornando ya y restaurando las pinturas y las dem&#225;s cosas con la finura propia suya.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">El palacio en el que Isabel finalmente quiso ser enterrada ten&#237;a el mismo problema. Necesitaba ser restaurado. Un documento del Archivo General de Simancas registr&#243; un pago realizado por la reina Isabel el 4 de junio de 1504 de &#8220;dozientos e cinqucnta mill maraved&#237;s para aquellos gastos en las obras del monasterio de san francisco [&#8230;] de la &#231;ibdad de Granada.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a> Este pago se realiz&#243; incluso antes de que ella decidiera enterrarse all&#237; en su testamento. Si esto refleja un mantenimiento ordinario o una intenci&#243;n temprana y no registrada de enterrarse all&#237; es algo que resulta imposible determinar solo a partir de los documentos.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Incluso despu&#233;s de que la reina hiciera esta inversi&#243;n, a&#250;n no era suficiente. El II conde de Tendilla, el hombre que recibi&#243; el cuerpo de la reina en la ciudad, no consideraba que la capilla tuviera el aspecto adecuado para el entierro real de una reina de Castilla, y decidi&#243; que necesitaba m&#225;s cuidado. Propuso lo siguiente:</p><blockquote><p style="text-align: justify;">&#8220;solar de losas de m&#225;rmol todo el suelo de la capilla. Dorar y pintar todo el Cielo de la capilla que es de moc&#225;rabez blanco agora. A las capilletas de los lados traz&#225;rseles sus cielos de madera bien labrada y pintada y dorada ricamente que son muy peque&#241;as. Hazer una reja de hierro bien hecha para el arco principal de la Capilla que puede tener treze pies de hueco&#8230;&#8221;<a href="#_ftn6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a></p></blockquote><p style="text-align: justify;">Dado que &#233;l estaba a cargo, tras su muerte el II conde de Tendilla tambi&#233;n se hizo enterrar en el Monasterio de San Francisco. Despu&#233;s de que Isabel y Fernando fueron trasladados de este espacio a la Capilla Real en 1521, el II conde de Tendilla fue trasladado de la capilla capitular a la capilla principal en 1523, donde antes hab&#237;an reposado los Reyes Cat&#243;licos. Puesto que estos dos prestigiosos monarcas reposaron all&#237; hasta que se complet&#243; su lugar de entierro permanente, el espacio bajo los moc&#225;rabes gan&#243; verdaderamente en prestigio y se convirti&#243; en un lugar deseable para el entierro del conde. Incluso cambi&#243; de parecer respecto a enterrarse a s&#237; mismo y a su familia en el Convento de Santa Ana de Mond&#233;jar, haci&#233;ndolo en la Alhambra en su lugar.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Cerremos con algunas preguntas y respuestas. &#191;Por qu&#233; pudieron los Reyes Cat&#243;licos haber elegido enterrarse en este espacio dentro de la Alhambra? &#191;Por qu&#233; no en el Monasterio de San Juan de los Reyes en Toledo, como hab&#237;an planeado a&#241;os antes? Hay dos razones para ello.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La primera es que exist&#237;a una larga tradici&#243;n entre los reyes cristianos ib&#233;ricos de enterrarse en ciudades musulmanas conquistadas, especialmente en las mezquitas aljamas. Vemos a Fernando III y Alfonso X enterrados en la antigua mezquita de Sevilla. Alfonso VII, Sancho III y Sancho IV fueron enterrados en la antigua mezquita de Toledo. En la antigua mezquita de C&#243;rdoba fueron enterrados Fernando IV y Alfonso XI. Isabel y Fernando fueron enterrados en la Alhambra, el c&#233;lebre sitio monumental, y m&#225;s tarde trasladados a la capilla real de la catedral, construida sobre la antigua mezquita aljama. Lo que hicieron Isabel y Fernando no era inusual en comparaci&#243;n con otros reyes de los mismos reinos que gobernaron.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La segunda raz&#243;n es que los monarcas cristianos de Iberia estaban acostumbrados a vestirse con el esplendor de los estilos andalus&#237;es que hab&#237;an patrocinado durante siglos. Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243; escribi&#243; que la corona castellana sent&#237;a una &#8220;admiraci&#243;n creciente&#8221; hacia &#8220;todo lo que era isl&#225;mico como paradigma de lujo y pompa que siempre deb&#237;a acompa&#241;ar a la monarqu&#237;a.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn7"><sup><span>[7]</span></sup></a> Dicho de otro modo, era normal que la monarqu&#237;a castellana se vistiera como las &#233;lites musulmanas y tambi&#233;n se enterrara bajo qubbas (c&#250;pulas) de estilo isl&#225;mico, como esta c&#250;pula de moc&#225;rabes que Isabel eligi&#243; para su entierro all&#225; por octubre de 1504.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Una &#250;ltima pregunta por responder. &#191;Qu&#233; ha ocurrido desde entonces? Por desgracia para los historiadores del arte, es un lugar dif&#237;cil de estudiar debido al desafortunado uso que se le dio al espacio en el siglo XIX. En 1810 las tropas francesas lo utilizaron como cuartel durante su ocupaci&#243;n de Espa&#241;a en las Guerras Napole&#243;nicas. M&#225;s tarde, en 1945, se convirti&#243; en un Parador Nacional de Turismo, uso que contin&#250;a hasta hoy. Debido a reformas e intervenciones como esta a lo largo de la historia, hemos perdido el aspecto original de la capilla. Sin embargo, como se ha visto anteriormente, abundante documentaci&#243;n nos permite reconstruir hist&#243;ricamente el uso del sitio.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg" width="1456" height="1941" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qtGl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c1ea857-bdda-48e4-b458-7afcb6be7799_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a>Antonio de la Torre y del Cerro, <em>Testamentar&#237;a de Isabel la Cat&#243;lica</em> (Barcelona: Vda. Fidel Rodr&#237;guez Ferr&#225;n, 1974), 63, citado en Mar&#237;a Cristina Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial de las obras del convento de San Francisco de la Alhambra y el II conde de Tendilla,&#8221; <em>BSAA arte</em> 75 (2009): 75.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a>&#8220;&#8230; si el Rey mi se&#241;or, eligiere sepultura en cualquier otra Iglesia o Monasterio de cualquier otra parte o lugar de mis Reynos, que mi cuerpo sea all&#237; trasladado&#8230;&#8221; Torre y del Cerro, <em>Testamentar&#237;a</em>, 63, citado en Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 78.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a> Jer&#243;nimo M&#252;nzer, &#8220;Viaje por Espa&#241;a y Portugal,&#8221; en <em>Viajes de extranjeros por Espa&#241;a y Portugal</em>, ed. Jos&#233; Garc&#237;a Mercadal, vol. 1 (Madrid, 1989), 38, citado en Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 77.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a>M&#252;nzer, &#8220;Viaje,&#8221; 39, citado en Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 77.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a>Archivo General de Simancas (AGS), Casas y Sitios Reales, leg. 4, f. 224, citado en Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 79.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a>Szmolka Clar&#233;s, <em>Epistolario del conde de Tendilla (1504&#8211;1506)</em> (Granada, 1996), 218, citado en Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 81.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref7"><sup><span>[7]</span></sup></a>Hern&#225;ndez Castell&#243;, &#8220;El memorial,&#8221; 83.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Great Mosque of Córdoba, Part 4: Appropriated Forms, Asserted Supremacy]]></title><description><![CDATA[The fourth section in a five-part series on architectural charisma in the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba, tracing Roman, Visigothic, and Byzantine elements absorbed into the mosque's design]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-947</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-947</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 06 Aug 2026 17:00:47 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5u12!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9bca49c8-631b-473d-bcf5-4bd27ce29c86_5712x4284.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a 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src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5u12!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9bca49c8-631b-473d-bcf5-4bd27ce29c86_5712x4284.jpeg" width="1456" height="1941" 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style="text-align: center;"><strong>The Immortality of Form: Architectural Charisma and Religious Power in the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba</strong> </h1><h1 style="text-align: center;">A Five-Part Series</h1><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 1: Introduction and Orthodoxy and Opposition: The Doctrinal Crisis of 10th-Century al-Andalus</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-b9b?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 2: Scripture in Stone: Qur&#8217;anic Inscriptions and Polemic in the Mosque of C&#243;rdoba </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-b9b?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix A)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-395?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 3: Apostasy and Architecture: &#703;Umar ibn &#7716;af&#7779;&#363;n and the Maq&#7779;&#363;ra&#8217;s Ideological Role </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-395?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix B)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 4: Appropriated Forms, Asserted Supremacy: Christian and Imperial Elements in the Mosque&#8217;s Design <em>(includes Photo Appendix C)</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 5: Conclusion, The Immortality of Form: C&#243;rdoba&#8217;s Mosque and Its Christian Reincarnations </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix D)</a></em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web"> and bibliography</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Note: This essay was written in the spring of 2025 while I was a student at Boston College. I&#8217;m now publishing it here, broken into a series of installments, so it can reach a wider</strong></em><strong> </strong><em><strong>audience. I have updated the photo appendix with photos I have taken since writing this essay.</strong></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Also note that this article is too long to read in an email client, it is a better experience to read it in your web browser.</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FOQT!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdb5b2e7f-b5b6-40b4-a230-0a63a62003c8_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FOQT!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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style="text-align: center;"><span>Appropriated Forms, Asserted Supremacy: Christian and Imperial Elements in the Mosque&#8217;s Design</span></h1><p></p><p style="text-align: justify;">This section will argue that the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba appropriated elements from Roman, Christian, and earlier eastern Islamic architectural traditions to produce a spectacle of religious and political authority, one that visually proclaimed the supremacy of Islam while simultaneously fostering a sense of continuity for Christian converts. As Thomas Glick has shown, the tenth century marked a period of significant religious transformation in al-Andalus, with a sharp rise in conversions from Christianity to Islam. If their demographic models are accurate, by the time of al-&#7716;akam II&#8217;s expansion of the mosque, a substantial portion of the native Christian population had already entered the Muslim community. Within this context, the choice of familiar liturgical and spatial forms, particularly in the design of the maq&#7779;&#363;ra, may have provided converts with a sense of ritual familiarity and architectural comfort. This portion contends that the mosque functioned not only as a statement of Umayyad power, but also as a persuasive space, one that subtly repurposed Christian visual language to ease the transition into M&#257;lik&#299; Sunnism. The expansions undertaken by &#703;Abd al-Ra&#7717;m&#257;n III and al-&#7716;akam II thus created a structure that both asserted Islamic dominance and embodied a broader strategy of visual assimilation, offering a sacred environment that was doctrinally Islamic but sensorially resonant with the Christian past.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">To understand how the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba may have been perceived by Christians, we must look eastward to earlier Umayyad strategies of sacred architecture. The medieval geographer al-Maqdis&#299; recounts a telling anecdote about the construction of the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock. Reflecting on his earlier doubts about the value of such grand building projects, al-Maqdis&#299; recalls how his uncle defended the caliph&#8217;s vision:</p>
      <p>
          <a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-947">
              Read more
          </a>
      </p>
   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Is Andalusí Art Islamic or Spanish?]]></title><description><![CDATA[Challenging two common ways of seeing medieval Andalus&#237; art and architecture]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/is-andalusi-art-islamic-or-spanish</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/is-andalusi-art-islamic-or-spanish</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 03 Aug 2026 17:00:44 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lyux!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb1f9f72-bcc4-4600-acbd-cf61825026a1_5712x4284.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lyux!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb1f9f72-bcc4-4600-acbd-cf61825026a1_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lyux!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb1f9f72-bcc4-4600-acbd-cf61825026a1_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lyux!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb1f9f72-bcc4-4600-acbd-cf61825026a1_5712x4284.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lyux!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb1f9f72-bcc4-4600-acbd-cf61825026a1_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lyux!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcb1f9f72-bcc4-4600-acbd-cf61825026a1_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img 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style="text-align: center;">Capilla de San Bartolom&#233;, C&#243;rdoba, Spain</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>English Version &#127482;&#127480;</strong></h1><h5 style="text-align: center;">La versi&#243;n en espa&#241;ol se encuentra abajo &#127466;&#127480;</h5><h2 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Is Andalus&#237; Art Islamic or Spanish?</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">There are two ways of seeing medieval Andalus&#237; art and architecture that frequently cause fights in the comment sections of online content. Both positions are correct and incorrect at the same time.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">First, one can see Andalus&#237; art as part of a broader Islamic art category. This view sees the accomplishments of al-Andalus, and even Mud&#233;jar art (Andalus&#237;-style art patronized by Christians or Jews), as part of the broader Islamic world. It claims that these styles came to be because of a superior Muslim culture which united peoples in religion from Central Asia to Iberia. Something was in the water in these lands during the Middle Ages, whether because of religion or ethnicity, that stirred up the creativity behind the accomplishments of al-Andalus. Muqarnas, for example, were an original Islamic architectural invention spread throughout the <em>dar al-islam</em> and reached some of their most celebrated forms through the hands of craftsmen in al-Andalus.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">On the other hand, one can see Andalus&#237; art through a Spanish lens, with labels like Hispano-Muslim used to describe the art and architecture. This side believes that the Andalus&#237; style was Hispanic, and that patrons&#8217; religion and culture had a minimal effect on the architecture. Instead, a natural temperament native to the peninsula was largely responsible for its creation. Often the Spanish side will discount the Islamic side by claiming that Islamic art was nothing but what preceded it with the Romans or Visigoths, its essence just dressed up differently in Arabic calligraphy or pointed in a different direction to Mecca. Much emphasis is placed on reuse and continuity, in contrast to the originality emphasized by the Islamic side.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!32Hw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F764c00d2-4043-4890-b887-735cb763dd3f_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!32Hw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F764c00d2-4043-4890-b887-735cb763dd3f_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!32Hw!, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F764c00d2-4043-4890-b887-735cb763dd3f_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!32Hw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F764c00d2-4043-4890-b887-735cb763dd3f_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Vegetation on the mihrab of the Mosque of C&#243;rdoba</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">So why are both right? Well, for the Islamic side, it&#8217;s undeniable that Andalus&#237; and Mud&#233;jar art have Islamic forms. For the Spanish side, it is undeniable that these monuments are located in the Iberian peninsula and carry a uniqueness to them that differentiates them visually from other lands in the <em>dar al-islam</em>. That&#8217;s about it&#8230; So why are both wrong? We have a lot more we can discuss on this topic.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">For the Islamic side, they make a crucial error by failing to take into account how unique and peculiar the qualities of the buildings of the Iberian peninsula are. Oleg Grabar, in his 1992 article &#8220;Two Paradoxes in the Islamic Art of the Spanish Peninsula&#8221; made this clear with two examples. The mosque of C&#243;rdoba and the Alhambra both serve as examples that differentiate the Iberian Islamic art from the rest of the Islamic world. Grabar wrote that in the Mosque of C&#243;rdoba there are a number of unusual features including the harmony of proportions, the geometry of the arches, and the mihrab with its three domes and the glistening mosaics whose niche was like a &#8220;gate toward another realm than that of man.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> The Alhambra was Grabar&#8217;s other example. To him, it was no typical palace. Grabar wrote that it &#8220;requires a considerable stretch of the imagination&#8221; to see &#8220;more than occasional similarities with Granada&#8217;s masterpiece&#8221; when comparing it to Ottoman, Safavid, or Mughal palaces.<a href="#_ftn2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">As for the Spanish side, muqarnas are a worthy case study to show how connected the mud&#233;jar vocabulary was with the broader Islamic world. I do think there is much peculiarity in northern Iberian Christian mud&#233;jar art, especially in artesonado wood which showed depictions of people, animals, and mythic beasts which differentiated Christian Iberian Andalus&#237; art from the rest of the Islamic Iberia after the Almohads more and more as time passed<a href="#_ftn3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a>, but here I want to focus on muqarnas as a bridge between Iberia and the rest of the <em>dar al-Islam</em>. Yasser Tabbaa, in his 1985 article &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome: Its Origins and Meaning,&#8221; used two miniatures dated to 873 (1468) and 944 (1537) which show a close view of Baghdad&#8217;s skyline scattered with many muqarnas domes.<a href="#_ftn4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a> Since the earliest surviving muqarnas dome (the shrine of Imam al-Dawr, 1075-90) was made for an Abbasid vassal in a rural village of little historical significance,<a href="#_ftn5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a> Tabbaa concluded that Baghdad likely was where muqarnas domes originated and dispersed to &#8220;such diverse places as Damascus, Palermo, Fez, and Tinmal.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a> Muqarnas had become associated with orthodox Sunni theology articulated through an occasionalist concept that permeated Islamic culture alongside other ornamental features like arabesques and overall star patterns. The feature was linked &#8220;with the triumph of the atomist-occasionalist view of the universe as formulated by al-Baqillani and supported by Caliph al-Qadir (991-1031).&#8221;<a href="#_ftn7"><sup><span>[7]</span></sup></a> For Tabbaa, the muqarnas dome provided a way for the Muslim patron, fully aware of its theological associations, to proclaim Sunniness even to the point of declaring a formal link with the Abbasid caliphate, what Tabbaa called &#8220;the heartland of orthodoxy and source of legitimation.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn8"><sup><span>[8]</span></sup></a> With Tabbaa&#8217;s lens, it is difficult to reject the influence that the broader Islamic world had on Iberia even centuries after the initial conquests. Influences were constantly being circulated within the borders of <em>dar al-islam</em>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Not only did they circulate far from Baghdad to the lands al-Andalus, but also this great architectural symbol of power penetrated outside of those borders. Muqarnas made their way to the Christian kingdoms of Iberia as early as the late twelfth century as we can see in the case of the Capilla de la Asunci&#243;n at the Monastery of Las Huelgas in Burgos (which I have recently made a video on; see this footnote for the link).<a href="#_ftn9"><sup><span>[9]</span></sup></a> Muqarnas became the standard ceiling under which a Castilian monarch could be buried, whether it was the Monastery of Las Huelgas, the Mosque of Cordoba&#8217;s Capilla Real, the Cathedral of Toledo, or the Convento de San Francisco of the Alhambra. We know for certain that monarchs with the prestige of Alfonso XI and the Catholic Monarchs Isabel and Fernando were buried under muqarnas.<a href="#_ftn10"><sup><span>[10]</span></sup></a> There were other options available, like grand gothic cathedrals, but these Christian monarchs chose to be buried under Islamic forms that likely originated in the capital of the Abbasid caliphate, Baghdad, instead.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKu8!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b6e4a1d-e1a5-45a0-b5a9-6e7fe4a1670a_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKu8!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b6e4a1d-e1a5-45a0-b5a9-6e7fe4a1670a_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKu8!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b6e4a1d-e1a5-45a0-b5a9-6e7fe4a1670a_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">The muqarnas under which Isabel and Fernando were buried at the Convento de San Francisco of the Alhambra</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">It is impossible to deny that mud&#233;jar can fall somewhere under the category of &#8220;Islamic art&#8221; just as much as the peculiarities of Iberian Islamicate art force us to separate it from that same category.<a href="#_ftn11"><sup><span>[11]</span></sup></a> Thus, I think Grabar&#8217;s evocation of paradoxes in his article title fits this situation perfectly. We are confronted with a peninsula which had Christian kings dress and build like Muslims. Imam Muhammad ibn Musa Ibn Ja&#8217;far lying in Iraq and Isabel la Cat&#243;lica shared something in common despite the distance between them in kilometers and culture &#8212; they were both buried under muqarnas. Considering people who led such different lives in religion and culture, it sits strangely for us in the twenty-first century that they shared the same architectural forms, but comfortably enough for the people of the Middle Ages. Cultures and styles were not pegged to each other back then as the way they are now.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">So, what is the takeaway? Who is right when a Spanish nationalist and a Moroccan nationalist argue over who the Alhambra belongs to? Is it &#8220;Hispano-Muslim?&#8221; Is it &#8220;Islamic?&#8221;</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Patio de los Leones of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">In almost the same place, the Patio de los Leones offers an example of the great paradox of Iberian art of the Middle Ages. One can see paintings of a so-called northern style depicting the Sultans of Granada in the adjacent Salon de los Reyes, and one of the most impressive muqarnas domes in the world only twenty steps away from there in the Sala de las Dos Hermanas. This doesn&#8217;t help us answer if it is Hispano-Muslim or Islamic.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nww-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9af41410-042d-4773-b45d-48c9f68ce709_4693x2640.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nww-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9af41410-042d-4773-b45d-48c9f68ce709_4693x2640.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nww-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9af41410-042d-4773-b45d-48c9f68ce709_4693x2640.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nww-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9af41410-042d-4773-b45d-48c9f68ce709_4693x2640.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Salon de los Reyes, Alhambra</h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2P9l!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d3cb434-8db9-48bf-9c03-bde530a80642_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2P9l!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d3cb434-8db9-48bf-9c03-bde530a80642_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2P9l!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d3cb434-8db9-48bf-9c03-bde530a80642_5712x4284.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2P9l!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d3cb434-8db9-48bf-9c03-bde530a80642_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2P9l!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d3cb434-8db9-48bf-9c03-bde530a80642_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2P9l!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d3cb434-8db9-48bf-9c03-bde530a80642_5712x4284.jpeg" width="1456" height="1941" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d3cb434-8db9-48bf-9c03-bde530a80642_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2P9l!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d3cb434-8db9-48bf-9c03-bde530a80642_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">Sala de las Dos Hermanas, Alhambra</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Both commenters are onto something that makes sense at first glance&#8230; but heap errors upon themselves when inspected in depth. In a similar way we must sit with many questions and answers to the paradox of medieval Iberia. It was a place that sat on the edge of the Islamic world and the Christian world. The &#8220;Iberian flavor&#8221; that emerged was caused by the unique inheritance of the Western Mediterranean while simultaneously being plugged into the networks of the broader Islamic world which led to the transmission of ideas pulled from as far as Central Asia.</p><div><hr></div><p><a href="#_ftnref1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> Oleg Grabar, &#8220;Two Paradoxes in the Islamic Art of the Spanish Peninsula,&#8221; in <em>The Legacy of Muslim Spain</em>, ed. Salma Khadra Jayyusi (Leiden: Brill, 1992), 584-85.</p><p><a href="#_ftnref2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a> Grabar, &#8220;Two Paradoxes,&#8221; 587.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a> What I mean here is that Christian Andalus&#237; art retained a level of iconography of mythic beasts like harpies and griffins from Umayyad times that was eventually forgotten in al-Andalus as the southern lands of Iberia shifted away from the common design of using <em>palia rotata</em> containing people and animals towards smaller pattens of geometry in the Nasrid period. This coincides with the split many scholars see in Islamic art before and after the Mongol invasions.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a> Yasser Tabbaa, &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome: Its Origin and Meaning,&#8221; <em>Muqarnas</em> 3 (1985): 63&#8211;64, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1523084">https://doi.org/10.2307/1523084</a>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a> Tabbaa believed that innovation in the Islamic world happened in the cities. Being in a rural location, the shrine of Imam al-Dawr dedicated to Muhammad ibn Musa ibn Ja&#8217;far would have been an unlikely place to be the first of its kind. Tabbaa, &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome,&#8221; 63.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a> Tabbaa, &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome,&#8221; 63.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref7"><sup><span>[7]</span></sup></a> Tabbaa, &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome,&#8221; 69.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref8"><sup><span>[8]</span></sup></a> Tabbaa sees Baghdad as so central to the development of muqarnas that he ends his essay quoting Herzfeld &#8220;One must not underrate Baghdad, seat of the caliphate and one of the seats of the Seljuk sultanate and a cultural center down to its conquest by Hulagu in 656 H. (A.D. 1258). To underrate Baghdad is to underrate Rome.&#8221; Tabbaa, &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome,&#8221; 72.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref9"><sup><span>[9]</span></sup></a> Instagram: </p><div class="instagram-embed-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;instagram_id&quot;:&quot;Daam7MoMRhX&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Walter Evans | Cross and Crescent on Instagram: \&quot;Inside a Ciste&#8230;&quot;,&quot;author_name&quot;:&quot;@cruzycreciente&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/__ss-rehost__IG-snapshot-Daam7MoMRhX.jpg&quot;,&quot;like_count&quot;:284,&quot;comment_count&quot;:20,&quot;profile_pic_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/__ss-rehost__IG-profile-pic-Daam7MoMRhX.png&quot;,&quot;follower_count&quot;:null,&quot;timestamp&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true}" data-component-name="InstagramToDOM"></div><p style="text-align: justify;"> YouTube: <a href="https://youtube.com/shorts/pbZpW2Av-2U?si=n3KMImckh942B-Mc">https://youtube.com/shorts/pbZpW2Av-2U?si=n3KMImckh942B-Mc</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref10"><sup><span>[10]</span></sup></a> Alfonso XI lies under the muqarnas of the Capilla Real of the Cathedral of C&#243;rdoba. Isabel and Fernando were originally buried under muqarnas in the Convento de San Francisco of the Alhambra, an old Nasrid palace. The Reyes Cat&#243;licos now lie in the Capilla Real of the Cathedral of Granada.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref11"><sup><span>[11]</span></sup></a> It is painful for me to see mud&#233;jar left out of most general surveys of Islamic art when the forms of its architecture are almost identical to what we see with Muslim patrons. This problem makes us question what it is more important to center our methodology on when categorizing art. Is it the patron or the aesthetic?</p><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Versi&#243;n en Espa&#241;ol &#127466;&#127480;</strong></h1><h2 style="text-align: center;"><strong>&#191;El arte andalus&#237; es isl&#225;mico o espa&#241;ol?</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">Existen dos maneras de ver el arte y la arquitectura andalus&#237;es medievales que suelen provocar peleas en las secciones de comentarios del contenido en internet. Ambas posturas son correctas e incorrectas al mismo tiempo.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">En primer lugar, se puede ver el arte andalus&#237; como parte de una categor&#237;a m&#225;s amplia del arte isl&#225;mico. Esta postura considera los logros de al-&#193;ndalus, e incluso el arte mud&#233;jar (arte de estilo andalus&#237; patrocinado por cristianos o jud&#237;os), como parte del mundo isl&#225;mico en general. Sostiene que estos estilos surgieron gracias a una cultura musulmana superior que uni&#243; a los pueblos en la religi&#243;n desde Asia Central hasta Iberia. Algo hab&#237;a en el agua de estas tierras durante la Edad Media, ya fuera por religi&#243;n o por etnia, que despert&#243; la creatividad detr&#225;s de los logros de al-&#193;ndalus. Las muqarnas, por ejemplo, fueron una invenci&#243;n arquitect&#243;nica isl&#225;mica original que se difundi&#243; por todo el <em>dar al-islam</em> y alcanz&#243; algunas de sus formas m&#225;s c&#233;lebres de la mano de artesanos en al-&#193;ndalus.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Por otro lado, se puede ver el arte andalus&#237; a trav&#233;s de una lente espa&#241;ola, con etiquetas como hispanomusulm&#225;n empleadas para describir el arte y la arquitectura. Esta postura sostiene que el estilo andalus&#237; fue hisp&#225;nico, y que la religi&#243;n y la cultura de los mecenas tuvieron un efecto m&#237;nimo en la arquitectura. En cambio, un temperamento natural propio de la pen&#237;nsula fue en gran medida responsable de su creaci&#243;n. A menudo, el lado espa&#241;ol resta valor al lado isl&#225;mico al afirmar que el arte isl&#225;mico no fue m&#225;s que lo que ya exist&#237;a con los romanos o los visigodos, su esencia simplemente vestida de otra manera con caligraf&#237;a &#225;rabe u orientada en otra direcci&#243;n hacia La Meca. Se pone mucho &#233;nfasis en la reutilizaci&#243;n y la continuidad, en contraste con la originalidad que resalta el lado isl&#225;mico.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!32Hw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F764c00d2-4043-4890-b887-735cb763dd3f_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!32Hw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F764c00d2-4043-4890-b887-735cb763dd3f_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, 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style="text-align: center;">Vegetaci&#243;n en el mihrab de la Mezquita de C&#243;rdoba</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Entonces, &#191;por qu&#233; tienen raz&#243;n ambos? Pues bien, para el lado isl&#225;mico, es innegable que el arte andalus&#237; y mud&#233;jar tiene formas isl&#225;micas. Para el lado espa&#241;ol, es innegable que estos monumentos se ubican en la pen&#237;nsula ib&#233;rica y poseen una singularidad que los diferencia visualmente de otras tierras del <em>dar al-islam</em>. Y ya est&#225;&#8230; Entonces, &#191;por qu&#233; se equivocan ambos? Tenemos mucho m&#225;s que discutir sobre este tema.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Para el lado isl&#225;mico, cometen un error crucial al no tener en cuenta lo singulares y peculiares que son las cualidades de los edificios de la pen&#237;nsula ib&#233;rica. Oleg Grabar, en su art&#237;culo de 1992 &#8220;Two Paradoxes in the Islamic Art of the Spanish Peninsula&#8221;, dej&#243; esto claro con dos ejemplos. La mezquita de C&#243;rdoba y la Alhambra sirven ambas como ejemplos que diferencian el arte isl&#225;mico ib&#233;rico del resto del mundo isl&#225;mico. Grabar escribi&#243; que en la Mezquita de C&#243;rdoba hay una serie de rasgos inusuales, entre ellos la armon&#237;a de las proporciones, la geometr&#237;a de los arcos, y el mihrab con sus tres c&#250;pulas y los relucientes mosaicos cuyo nicho era como una &#8220;puerta hacia otro reino distinto al del hombre.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> La Alhambra fue el otro ejemplo de Grabar. Para &#233;l, no era un palacio t&#237;pico. Grabar escribi&#243; que &#8220;requiere un considerable esfuerzo de la imaginaci&#243;n&#8221; ver &#8220;m&#225;s que semejanzas ocasionales con la obra maestra de Granada&#8221; al compararla con los palacios otomanos, saf&#225;vidas o mogoles.<a href="#_ftn2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">En cuanto al lado espa&#241;ol, las muqarnas constituyen un valioso caso de estudio para mostrar cu&#225;n conectado estaba el vocabulario mud&#233;jar con el mundo isl&#225;mico en general. S&#237; creo que hay mucha peculiaridad en el arte mud&#233;jar cristiano del norte de Iberia, especialmente en la madera artesonada, que mostraba representaciones de personas, animales y bestias m&#237;ticas que diferenciaron cada vez m&#225;s el arte andalus&#237; cristiano ib&#233;rico del resto de la Iberia isl&#225;mica tras los almohades a medida que pasaba el tiempo<a href="#_ftn3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a>, pero aqu&#237; quiero centrarme en las muqarnas como puente entre Iberia y el resto del <em>dar al-Islam</em>. Yasser Tabbaa, en su art&#237;culo de 1985 &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome: Its Origins and Meaning,&#8221; emple&#243; dos miniaturas fechadas en 873 (1468) y 944 (1537) que muestran una vista cercana del perfil de Bagdad salpicado de numerosas c&#250;pulas de muqarnas.<a href="#_ftn4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a> Dado que la c&#250;pula de muqarnas m&#225;s antigua que se conserva (el santuario del Imam al-Dawr, 1075-90) fue construida para un vasallo abas&#237; en una aldea rural de escasa relevancia hist&#243;rica,<a href="#_ftn5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a> Tabbaa concluy&#243; que Bagdad fue probablemente el lugar donde se originaron las c&#250;pulas de muqarnas y desde donde se dispersaron a &#8220;lugares tan diversos como Damasco, Palermo, Fez y Tinmal.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a> Las muqarnas hab&#237;an llegado a asociarse con la teolog&#237;a sun&#237; ortodoxa, articulada mediante un concepto ocasionalista que impregnaba la cultura isl&#225;mica junto con otros rasgos ornamentales como los arabescos y los patrones generales de estrellas. El rasgo estaba vinculado &#8220;con el triunfo de la visi&#243;n atomista-ocasionalista del universo formulada por al-Baqillani y respaldada por el califa al-Qadir (991-1031).&#8221;<a href="#_ftn7"><sup><span>[7]</span></sup></a> Para Tabbaa, la c&#250;pula de muqarnas le ofrec&#237;a al mecenas musulm&#225;n, plenamente consciente de sus asociaciones teol&#243;gicas, una manera de proclamar su condici&#243;n sun&#237; hasta el punto de declarar un v&#237;nculo formal con el califato abas&#237;, lo que Tabbaa llam&#243; &#8220;el coraz&#243;n de la ortodoxia y fuente de legitimaci&#243;n.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn8"><sup><span>[8]</span></sup></a> Con la mirada de Tabbaa, resulta dif&#237;cil rechazar la influencia que el mundo isl&#225;mico en general tuvo sobre Iberia incluso siglos despu&#233;s de las conquistas iniciales. Las influencias circulaban constantemente dentro de las fronteras del <em>dar al-islam</em>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">No solo circularon desde Bagdad hasta llegar a las tierras de al-&#193;ndalus, sino que adem&#225;s este gran s&#237;mbolo arquitect&#243;nico de poder penetr&#243; m&#225;s all&#225; de esas fronteras. Las muqarnas llegaron a los reinos cristianos de Iberia ya a finales del siglo XII, como podemos ver en el caso de la Capilla de la Asunci&#243;n en el Monasterio de las Huelgas de Burgos (sobre el cual hice recientemente un v&#237;deo; v&#233;ase esta nota al pie para el enlace).<a href="#_ftn9"><sup><span>[9]</span></sup></a> Las muqarnas se convirtieron en el techo est&#225;ndar bajo el cual pod&#237;a ser enterrado un monarca castellano, ya fuera en el Monasterio de las Huelgas, la Capilla Real de la Mezquita de C&#243;rdoba, la Catedral de Toledo o el Convento de San Francisco de la Alhambra. Sabemos con certeza que monarcas del prestigio de Alfonso XI y los Reyes Cat&#243;licos Isabel y Fernando fueron enterrados bajo muqarnas.<a href="#_ftn10"><sup><span>[10]</span></sup></a> Hab&#237;a otras opciones disponibles, como las grandes catedrales g&#243;ticas, pero estos monarcas cristianos optaron en cambio por ser enterrados bajo formas isl&#225;micas que probablemente se originaron en la capital del califato abas&#237;, Bagdad.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKu8!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3b6e4a1d-e1a5-45a0-b5a9-6e7fe4a1670a_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qKu8!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, 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style="text-align: center;"><strong>Los mocarabes bajo los cuales fueron enterrados Isabel y Fernando en el Convento de San Francisco de la Alhambra</strong></h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Es imposible negar que el mud&#233;jar puede situarse en alg&#250;n punto dentro de la categor&#237;a de &#8220;arte isl&#225;mico&#8221;, tanto como las peculiaridades del arte islamicado ib&#233;rico nos obligan a separarlo de esa misma categor&#237;a.<a href="#_ftn11"><sup><span>[11]</span></sup></a> Por eso, creo que la evocaci&#243;n de paradojas que hace Grabar en el t&#237;tulo de su art&#237;culo encaja perfectamente con esta situaci&#243;n. Nos encontramos ante una pen&#237;nsula en la que reyes cristianos se vest&#237;an y constru&#237;an como musulmanes. El Imam Muhammad ibn Musa Ibn Ja&#8217;far, que yace en Irak, e Isabel la Cat&#243;lica compart&#237;an algo en com&#250;n pese a la distancia que los separaba en kil&#243;metros y en cultura: ambos fueron enterrados bajo muqarnas. Si pensamos en personas que llevaron vidas tan distintas en religi&#243;n y cultura, nos resulta extra&#241;o en el siglo XXI que compartieran las mismas formas arquitect&#243;nicas, aunque para la gente de la Edad Media esto resultara bastante natural. En aquel entonces, las culturas y los estilos no estaban tan encasillados entre s&#237; como lo est&#225;n ahora.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Entonces, &#191;cu&#225;l es la conclusi&#243;n? &#191;Qui&#233;n tiene raz&#243;n cuando un nacionalista espa&#241;ol y un nacionalista marroqu&#237; discuten sobre a qui&#233;n pertenece la Alhambra? &#191;Es &#8220;hispanomusulmana&#8221;? &#191;Es &#8220;isl&#225;mica&#8221;?</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hB0f!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F98e44c3e-5462-44fe-8b69-68550bb1c219_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Patio de los Leones de la Alhambra en Granada, Espa&#241;a</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">En casi el mismo lugar, el Patio de los Leones ofrece un ejemplo de la gran paradoja del arte ib&#233;rico de la Edad Media. Se pueden ver pinturas de un estilo llamado n&#243;rdico que representan a los sultanes de Granada en el contiguo Sal&#243;n de los Reyes, y una de las c&#250;pulas de muqarnas m&#225;s impresionantes del mundo a tan solo veinte pasos de all&#237;, en la Sala de las Dos Hermanas. Esto no nos ayuda a responder si es hispanomusulm&#225;n o isl&#225;mico.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nww-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9af41410-042d-4773-b45d-48c9f68ce709_4693x2640.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nww-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9af41410-042d-4773-b45d-48c9f68ce709_4693x2640.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nww-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9af41410-042d-4773-b45d-48c9f68ce709_4693x2640.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Nww-!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9af41410-042d-4773-b45d-48c9f68ce709_4693x2640.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Salon de los Reyes, Alhambra</h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2P9l!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d3cb434-8db9-48bf-9c03-bde530a80642_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2P9l!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1d3cb434-8db9-48bf-9c03-bde530a80642_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2P9l!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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style="text-align: center;">Sala de las Dos Hermanas, Alhambra</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Ambos comentaristas intuyen algo que tiene sentido a primera vista&#8230; pero acumulan errores sobre s&#237; mismos cuando se los examina en profundidad. De manera similar, debemos convivir con muchas preguntas y respuestas ante la paradoja de la Iberia medieval. Fue un lugar situado en el l&#237;mite entre el mundo isl&#225;mico y el mundo cristiano. El &#8220;sabor ib&#233;rico&#8221; que surgi&#243; se debi&#243; a la herencia singular del Mediterr&#225;neo occidental, al mismo tiempo que estaba conectado a las redes del mundo isl&#225;mico en general, lo que propici&#243; la transmisi&#243;n de ideas tra&#237;das desde tan lejos como Asia Central.</p><div><hr></div><p><a href="#_ftnref1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> Oleg Grabar, &#8220;Two Paradoxes in the Islamic Art of the Spanish Peninsula,&#8221; en <em>The Legacy of Muslim Spain</em>, ed. Salma Khadra Jayyusi (Leiden: Brill, 1992), 584-85.</p><p><a href="#_ftnref2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a> Grabar, &#8220;Two Paradoxes,&#8221; 587.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a> Lo que quiero decir aqu&#237; es que el arte andalus&#237; cristiano conserv&#243; cierto nivel de iconograf&#237;a de bestias m&#237;ticas como arp&#237;as y grifos procedentes de &#233;poca omeya, que con el tiempo se fue olvidando en al-&#193;ndalus a medida que las tierras del sur de Iberia se alejaban del dise&#241;o habitual de usar <em>palia rotata </em>con figuras de personas y animales hacia patrones geom&#233;tricos m&#225;s reducidos en el per&#237;odo nazar&#237;. Esto coincide con la divisi&#243;n que muchos estudiosos observan en el arte isl&#225;mico antes y despu&#233;s de las invasiones mongolas.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a> Yasser Tabbaa, &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome: Its Origin and Meaning,&#8221; <em>Muqarnas</em> 3 (1985): 63&#8211;64, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1523084">https://doi.org/10.2307/1523084</a>.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a> Tabbaa cre&#237;a que la innovaci&#243;n en el mundo isl&#225;mico ocurr&#237;a en las ciudades. Al estar en un emplazamiento rural, el santuario del Imam al-Dawr, dedicado a Muhammad ibn Musa ibn Ja&#8217;far, habr&#237;a sido un lugar improbable para ser el primero de su tipo. Tabbaa, &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome,&#8221; 63.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a> Tabbaa, &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome,&#8221; 63.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref7"><sup><span>[7]</span></sup></a> Tabbaa, &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome,&#8221; 69.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref8"><sup><span>[8]</span></sup></a> Tabbaa considera que Bagdad fue tan central para el desarrollo de las muqarnas que termina su ensayo citando a Herzfeld: &#8220;No se debe subestimar a Bagdad, sede del califato y una de las sedes del sultanato sely&#250;cida, y centro cultural hasta su conquista por Hulagu en 656 H. (1258 d.C.). Subestimar a Bagdad es subestimar a Roma.&#8221; Tabbaa, &#8220;The Muqarnas Dome,&#8221; 72.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref9"><sup><span>[9]</span></sup></a> Instagram: </p><div class="instagram-embed-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;instagram_id&quot;:&quot;Daam7MoMRhX&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Instagram&quot;,&quot;author_name&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/__ss-rehost__IG-snapshot-Daam7MoMRhX.jpg&quot;,&quot;like_count&quot;:null,&quot;comment_count&quot;:null,&quot;profile_pic_url&quot;:null,&quot;follower_count&quot;:null,&quot;timestamp&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true}" data-component-name="InstagramToDOM"></div><p style="text-align: justify;"> YouTube: <a href="https://youtube.com/shorts/pbZpW2Av-2U?si=n3KMImckh942B-Mc">https://youtube.com/shorts/pbZpW2Av-2U?si=n3KMImckh942B-Mc</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref10"><sup><span>[10]</span></sup></a> Alfonso XI yace bajo las muqarnas de la Capilla Real de la Catedral de C&#243;rdoba. Isabel y Fernando fueron enterrados originalmente bajo muqarnas en el Convento de San Francisco de la Alhambra, un antiguo palacio nazar&#237;. Los Reyes Cat&#243;licos yacen ahora en la Capilla Real de la Catedral de Granada.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref11"><sup><span>[11]</span></sup></a> Me resulta doloroso ver que el mud&#233;jar quede excluido de la mayor&#237;a de los estudios generales sobre arte isl&#225;mico, cuando las formas de su arquitectura son casi id&#233;nticas a las que vemos con mecenas musulmanes. Este problema nos hace preguntarnos en qu&#233; es m&#225;s importante centrar nuestra metodolog&#237;a al categorizar el arte. &#191;Es el mecenas o la est&#233;tica?</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Are Ceuta and Melilla Moroccan or Spanish? Ask the Middle Ages]]></title><description><![CDATA[What six centuries of conquest and border-making in Iberia and North Africa reveal about this week's crisis]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/are-ceuta-and-melilla-moroccan-or</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/are-ceuta-and-melilla-moroccan-or</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 01 Aug 2026 17:27:54 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y0dr!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0999b7c2-6c10-4081-9b43-6a077f266799_2700x1800.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" 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style="text-align: center;">The border fence at Ceuta that many migrants swam around in recent days</h6><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>English Version &#127482;&#127480;</strong></h1><h5 style="text-align: center;"><strong>La versi&#243;n en Espa&#241;ol se encuentra abajo &#127466;&#127480;</strong></h5><h2 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Are Ceuta and Melilla Moroccan or Spanish? Ask the Middle Ages</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">It is often hard to see a direct connection from medieval history to present day current events, but the news from this past week of around 60,000 Moroccans storming into Ceuta proves it is more relevant than we might expect.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">I say this because people have been asking me recently why Spanish people would be upset about Moroccans entering Ceuta when they didn&#8217;t even leave North Africa. Their logic is that Ceuta is essentially a Moroccan city because it is on that side of the Strait of Gibraltar. How then, could people possibly be calling it an invasion? From the Arab and Berber side, many see it as taking back colonized land.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The problem is that this logic is conflating two things, namely, immigration and irredentism (the policy of advocating returning a territory to another who used to control it). What happened this last week was an immigration problem, not a conquest, even though many on the Spanish right, like Santiago Abascal, the leader of VOX, have labeled it an invasion.<a href="#_ftn1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> On a basic level, as per interviews with Moroccans by CBS, it seems that many believed that they were going to find asylum that promised them a better life than in Morocco.<a href="#_ftn2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a> There was misinformation on sites like Instagram and Facebook which according to the New York Times &#8220;were based on misinterpretations of a recent ruling by Spanish judges, who last month placed restrictions on when the Spanish authorities can expel migrants who try to swim by sea to Spain&#8217;s territories in Africa.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a> Some politicians in Morocco posted on social media about the ruling and created a &#8220;pull factor.&#8221; A 26-year-old migrant, Youssef Alaoui, said Moroccan police waved his group through, telling them &#8220;go that way, go that way.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The cause is likely because of recent improvements in relations between Algeria and Spain. Morocco and Algeria have a rivalry, to say the least, so it is likely that Morocco was using the border as political pressure against Spain to embarrass the left wing government of Pedro Sanchez, which is notably pro-immigration.<a href="#_ftn5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a> No matter your political opinion on the events, it was a tragedy because at least 67 people died as of the writing of this essay.<a href="#_ftn6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">This recap above was simply for context, today I want to talk about how history connects to the current events. This logic that Spain needs to return the cities fails because of a lack of medieval historical context. Ceuta has been a Christian city since its conquest by the Portuguese on August 21, 1415 from the Marinids. It became Spanish in 1668 after siding with Spain after Portugal regained its independence in the Portuguese Restoration War of 1640. Melilla has been Spanish since the Duke of Medina Sidonia conquered it in 1497 for Spain. Keep in mind something important here which puts all of this into perspective. Granada was conquered in 1492. If people expect Ceuta to be returned, which was a city conquered seventy-seven years earlier, should Granada also be considered a colonized city since it was just as Islamic as Ceuta upon conquest?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Let&#8217;s take Gibraltar. It&#8217;s in a similar situation to Spanish enclaves in North Africa. The English have held Gibraltar since 1704 when they conquered it in the War of Spanish Succession. They have been there almost three-hundred years less than the Spanish have been in Ceuta.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Both Ceuta and Melilla were a part of the kingdoms that historians consider to be the modern day Spain and Portugal before some territories within the Iberian peninsula itself were incorporated into these kingdoms. For example, Castile and Aragon were the Christian kingdoms most associated with what is now Spain, and they did not conquer Navarra until 1521. Fernando el Cat&#243;lico started and ended the conquest of Granada. He didn&#8217;t complete his conquest of Navarra. His grandson Charles V had to finish that job.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">So, back to the main point. Are these cities essentially colonies that persist off the coast of North Africa which the Spanish control? I suppose one could take that view if they see all of Northwestern Africa belonging to the modern state of Morocco. But these modern states are inheritors of a medieval world which shaped their borders, laws, and customs that are still used today. It&#8217;s hard to argue that a city which had been controlled by Christian kingdoms for over six-hundred years and was in the now secular Spain&#8217;s possession before their modern constitution isn&#8217;t theirs. Yet we can&#8217;t sit here and pretend that enclaves on the coast of countries don&#8217;t bother anyone either&#8230; just ask the Spanish how they feel about Gibraltar. Ask them who it belongs to! Most will say Spain, not England.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This situation is obviously complicated for the reasons said above, but it forces us to consider how important it is to study history, even something that can feel so distant from our current place in time like the history of the Middle Ages. In places like Spain and Morocco, those medieval realities still shape the world we live in today.</p><div><hr></div><p><a href="#_ftnref1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> https://www.nytimes.com/2026/07/30/world/europe/ceuta-spain-morocco-migrants.html</p><p><a href="#_ftnref2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a> https://www.facebook.com/CBSNews/videos/moroccan-migrant-finds-out-spanish-authorities-are-sending-them-back/2089490939110759/</p><p><a href="#_ftnref3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a> https://www.nytimes.com/2026/07/30/world/europe/ceuta-spain-morocco-migrants.html</p><p><a href="#_ftnref4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a> https://www.nytimes.com/2026/07/30/world/europe/ceuta-spain-morocco-migrants.html</p><p><a href="#_ftnref5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a> https://www.nytimes.com/2026/07/30/world/europe/spain-morocco-ceuta-migrants.html</p><p><a href="#_ftnref6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a> https://www.nytimes.com/2026/07/30/world/europe/ceuta-spain-morocco-migrants.html</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y0dr!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0999b7c2-6c10-4081-9b43-6a077f266799_2700x1800.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y0dr!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0999b7c2-6c10-4081-9b43-6a077f266799_2700x1800.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y0dr!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0999b7c2-6c10-4081-9b43-6a077f266799_2700x1800.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!y0dr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0999b7c2-6c10-4081-9b43-6a077f266799_2700x1800.jpeg" width="1456" height="971" 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style="text-align: center;"><strong>La valla fronteriza de Ceuta que muchos migrantes bordearon a nado en los &#250;ltimos d&#237;as</strong></h6><h1 style="text-align: center;">Versi&#243;n en Espa&#241;ol &#127466;&#127480;</h1><h2 style="text-align: center;"><strong>&#191;Son Ceuta y Melilla marroqu&#237;es o espa&#241;olas? Preg&#250;ntenle a la Edad Media</strong></h2><p style="text-align: justify;">A menudo resulta dif&#237;cil ver una conexi&#243;n directa entre la historia medieval y los sucesos actuales, pero las noticias de esta &#250;ltima semana, en las que cerca de 60.000 marroqu&#237;es irrumpieron en Ceuta, demuestran que es m&#225;s relevante de lo que podr&#237;amos esperar.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Digo esto porque &#250;ltimamente la gente me ha estado preguntando por qu&#233; los espa&#241;oles se molestar&#237;an porque los marroqu&#237;es entraran en Ceuta cuando ni siquiera salieron del norte de &#193;frica. Su l&#243;gica es que Ceuta es esencialmente una ciudad marroqu&#237; porque est&#225; de ese lado del estrecho de Gibraltar. &#191;C&#243;mo entonces podr&#237;a la gente llamarlo una invasi&#243;n? Desde el lado &#225;rabe y bereber, &#191;no se trata m&#225;s bien de recuperar sus posesiones colonizadas?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El problema es que esta l&#243;gica confunde dos cosas, a saber, la inmigraci&#243;n y el irredentismo (la pol&#237;tica que defiende la devoluci&#243;n de un territorio a quien antes lo controlaba). Lo que ocurri&#243; la semana pasada fue un problema de inmigraci&#243;n, no una conquista, aunque muchos en la derecha espa&#241;ola, como Santiago Abascal, el l&#237;der de VOX, lo hayan calificado de invasi&#243;n.<a href="#_ftn1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> En un nivel b&#225;sico, seg&#250;n entrevistas realizadas a marroqu&#237;es por CBS, parece que muchos cre&#237;an que iban a encontrar asilo, lo cual les promet&#237;a una vida mejor que en Marruecos.<a href="#_ftn2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a> Hubo desinformaci&#243;n en sitios como Instagram y Facebook que, seg&#250;n el New York Times, &#8220;se basaban en malas interpretaciones de un fallo reciente de jueces espa&#241;oles, quienes el mes pasado impusieron restricciones sobre cu&#225;ndo las autoridades espa&#241;olas pueden expulsar a los migrantes que intentan llegar a nado a los territorios de Espa&#241;a en &#193;frica.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a> Algunos pol&#237;ticos en Marruecos publicaron en redes sociales sobre el fallo y crearon un &#8220;factor de atracci&#243;n&#8221;. Un migrante de 26 a&#241;os, Youssef Alaoui, dijo que la polic&#237;a marroqu&#237; hizo pasar a su grupo, dici&#233;ndoles &#8220;vayan por ah&#237;, vayan por ah&#237;&#8221;.<a href="#_ftn4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">La causa probablemente se deba a las recientes mejoras en las relaciones entre Argelia y Espa&#241;a. Marruecos y Argelia tienen una rivalidad, por decir lo menos, por lo que es probable que Marruecos estuviera utilizando la frontera como presi&#243;n pol&#237;tica contra Espa&#241;a y para avergonzar al gobierno de izquierda de Pedro S&#225;nchez, que es notablemente proinmigraci&#243;n.<a href="#_ftn5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a> Sin importar tu opini&#243;n pol&#237;tica sobre los hechos, fue una tragedia, ya que al menos 67 personas murieron hasta el momento de escribir este ensayo.<a href="#_ftn6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Este repaso fue simplemente para dar contexto; hoy quiero hablar de c&#243;mo la historia se conecta con los sucesos actuales. Esta l&#243;gica de que Espa&#241;a necesita devolver las ciudades falla por falta de contexto hist&#243;rico medieval. Ceuta ha sido una ciudad cristiana desde que los portugueses la conquistaron a los benimerines el 21 de agosto de 1415. Se volvi&#243; espa&#241;ola en 1668 tras aliarse con Espa&#241;a despu&#233;s de que Portugal recuperara su independencia en la Guerra de Restauraci&#243;n portuguesa de 1640. Melilla ha sido espa&#241;ola desde que el duque de Medina Sidonia la conquist&#243; en 1497 para Espa&#241;a. Tengan en cuenta algo importante aqu&#237; que pone todo esto en perspectiva. Granada fue conquistada en 1492. Si la gente espera que se devuelva Ceuta, una ciudad conquistada setenta y siete a&#241;os antes, &#191;deber&#237;a considerarse tambi&#233;n a Granada una ciudad colonizada, ya que era tan isl&#225;mica como Ceuta al momento de su conquista?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Tomemos el caso de Gibraltar. Se encuentra en una situaci&#243;n similar a la de los enclaves espa&#241;oles en el norte de &#193;frica. Los ingleses han tenido Gibraltar desde 1704, cuando lo conquistaron durante la Guerra de Sucesi&#243;n espa&#241;ola. Han estado all&#237; casi trescientos a&#241;os menos de lo que los espa&#241;oles han estado en Ceuta.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Tanto Ceuta como Melilla formaban parte de los reinos que los historiadores consideran la Espa&#241;a y Portugal modernas, antes de que algunos territorios dentro de la propia pen&#237;nsula ib&#233;rica fueran incorporados a estos reinos. Por ejemplo, Castilla y Arag&#243;n fueron los reinos cristianos m&#225;s asociados con lo que hoy es Espa&#241;a, y no conquistaron Navarra hasta 1521. Fernando el Cat&#243;lico inici&#243; y concluy&#243; la conquista de Granada. No complet&#243; su conquista de Navarra. Su nieto Carlos V tuvo que terminar esa tarea.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Entonces, volviendo al punto principal. &#191;Son estas ciudades esencialmente colonias que persisten frente a la costa del norte de &#193;frica y que Espa&#241;a controla? Supongo que uno podr&#237;a adoptar esa postura si considera que todo el noroeste de &#193;frica pertenece al estado moderno de Marruecos. Pero estos estados modernos son herederos de un mundo medieval que dio forma a sus fronteras, leyes y costumbres, que se siguen usando hoy en d&#237;a. Es dif&#237;cil argumentar que una ciudad que hab&#237;a estado bajo el control de reinos cristianos durante m&#225;s de seiscientos a&#241;os, y que estaba en posesi&#243;n de la ahora laica Espa&#241;a antes de su constituci&#243;n moderna, no le pertenece. Sin embargo, tampoco podemos quedarnos aqu&#237; fingiendo que los enclaves en la costa de otros pa&#237;ses no molestan a nadie&#8230; basta con preguntarle a los espa&#241;oles qu&#233; opinan de Gibraltar. &#161;Preg&#250;ntenles a qui&#233;n pertenece! La mayor&#237;a dir&#225; que a Espa&#241;a, no a Inglaterra.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Esta situaci&#243;n es, obviamente, complicada por las razones antes mencionadas, pero nos obliga a considerar lo importante que es estudiar la historia, incluso algo que puede sentirse tan distante de nuestro momento actual como la historia de la Edad Media. En lugares como Espa&#241;a y Marruecos, esas realidades medievales todav&#237;a moldean el mundo en que vivimos hoy.</p><div><hr></div><p><a href="#_ftnref1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> https://www.nytimes.com/2026/07/30/world/europe/ceuta-spain-morocco-migrants.html</p><p><a href="#_ftnref2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a> https://www.facebook.com/CBSNews/videos/moroccan-migrant-finds-out-spanish-authorities-are-sending-them-back/2089490939110759/</p><p><a href="#_ftnref3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a> https://www.nytimes.com/2026/07/30/world/europe/ceuta-spain-morocco-migrants.html</p><p><a href="#_ftnref4"><sup><span>[4]</span></sup></a> https://www.nytimes.com/2026/07/30/world/europe/ceuta-spain-morocco-migrants.html</p><p><a href="#_ftnref5"><sup><span>[5]</span></sup></a> https://www.nytimes.com/2026/07/30/world/europe/spain-morocco-ceuta-migrants.html</p><p><a href="#_ftnref6"><sup><span>[6]</span></sup></a> https://www.nytimes.com/2026/07/30/world/europe/ceuta-spain-morocco-migrants.html</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Great Mosque of Córdoba, Part 3: Apostasy and Architecture]]></title><description><![CDATA[The third section in a five-part series on architectural charisma and religious power in the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba, examining &#703;Umar ibn &#7716;af&#7779;&#363;n's rebellion and its imprint on the mosque's maq&#7779;&#363;ra]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-395</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-395</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 30 Jul 2026 17:01:30 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Rg6x!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb14bbf3a-de91-491b-b23f-09a2bc248761_3802x2852.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Rg6x!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb14bbf3a-de91-491b-b23f-09a2bc248761_3802x2852.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Rg6x!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb14bbf3a-de91-491b-b23f-09a2bc248761_3802x2852.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Rg6x!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>The Immortality of Form: Architectural Charisma and Religious Power in the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba</strong> </h1><h1 style="text-align: center;">A Five-Part Series</h1><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part">Part 1: Introduction and Orthodoxy and Opposition: The Doctrinal Crisis of 10th-Century al-Andalus</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-b9b">Part 2: Scripture in Stone: Qur&#8217;anic Inscriptions and Polemic in the Mosque of C&#243;rdoba </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-b9b">(includes Photo Appendix A)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 3: Apostasy and Architecture: &#703;Umar ibn &#7716;af&#7779;&#363;n and the Maq&#7779;&#363;ra&#8217;s Ideological Role <em>(includes Photo Appendix B)</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-947?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 4: Appropriated Forms, Asserted Supremacy: Christian and Imperial Elements in the Mosque&#8217;s Design </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-947?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix C)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 5: Conclusion, The Immortality of Form: C&#243;rdoba&#8217;s Mosque and Its Christian Reincarnations </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix D) </a></em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">and bibliography</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Note: This essay was written in the spring of 2025 while I was a student at Boston College. I&#8217;m now publishing it here, broken into a series of installments, so it can reach a wider audience.</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fA_6!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc094618f-57c8-4743-bc1b-9640e4745777_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fA_6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc094618f-57c8-4743-bc1b-9640e4745777_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fA_6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc094618f-57c8-4743-bc1b-9640e4745777_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fA_6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc094618f-57c8-4743-bc1b-9640e4745777_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fA_6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc094618f-57c8-4743-bc1b-9640e4745777_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fA_6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc094618f-57c8-4743-bc1b-9640e4745777_4032x3024.jpeg" width="1456" height="1941" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc094618f-57c8-4743-bc1b-9640e4745777_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fA_6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc094618f-57c8-4743-bc1b-9640e4745777_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fA_6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc094618f-57c8-4743-bc1b-9640e4745777_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fA_6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc094618f-57c8-4743-bc1b-9640e4745777_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;"><span>Apostasy and Architecture: &#703;Umar ibn &#7716;af&#7779;&#363;n and the Maq&#7779;&#363;ra&#8217;s Ideological Role</span></h1><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">In the final inscription examined in the previous section, the Qur&#702;&#257;n condemns those who &#8220;dissent [&#8230;] after knowledge had come to them&#8221; (Q 3:19), a charge directed not only at the historical <em>ahl al-kit&#257;b</em> but also, potentially, at specific enemies of the Umayyad state. Few figures embody this dissent more explicitly than &#703;Umar ibn &#7716;af&#7779;&#363;n, a Muwallad rebel whose decades-long insurgency in the mountainous regions of southwestern al-Andalus posed one of the most destabilizing internal threats of the ninth century. Although born a Muslim, Ibn &#7716;af&#7779;&#363;n is widely believed to have converted to Christianity, likely to secure the support of Alfonso III of Asturias, a decision marked him as both a political traitor and an apostate.</p>
      <p>
          <a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-395">
              Read more
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   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Great Mosque of Córdoba, Part 2: Scripture in Stone]]></title><description><![CDATA[The second section in a five-part series on architectural charisma and religious power in the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba, examining the Qur'anic inscriptions embedded in its walls]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-b9b</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-b9b</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 23 Jul 2026 17:01:40 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!huwU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F30a1ee30-afde-42c3-91e1-d8590f9b4e97_4032x3024.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 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xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>The Immortality of Form: Architectural Charisma and Religious Power in the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba</strong> </h1><h1 style="text-align: center;">A Five-Part Series</h1><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/open.substack.com/pub/cruzycreciente/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=post%20viewer">Part 1: Introduction and Orthodoxy and Opposition: The Doctrinal Crisis of 10th-Century al-Andalus </a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 2: Scripture in Stone: Qur&#8217;anic Inscriptions and Polemic in the Mosque of C&#243;rdoba <em>(includes Photo Appendix A)</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-395">Part 3: Apostasy and Architecture: &#703;Umar ibn &#7716;af&#7779;&#363;n and the Maq&#7779;&#363;ra&#8217;s Ideological Role </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-395">(includes Photo Appendix B)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-947?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 4: Appropriated Forms, Asserted Supremacy: Christian and Imperial Elements in the Mosque&#8217;s Design </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-947?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix C)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 5: Conclusion, The Immortality of Form: C&#243;rdoba&#8217;s Mosque and Its Christian Reincarnations </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix D) </a></em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">and bibliography</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Note: This essay was written in the spring of 2025 while I was a student at Boston College. I&#8217;m now publishing it here, broken into a series of installments, so it can reach a wider audience.</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGex!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbdc8e69c-7e88-40a4-a3cf-94ec07f8e44c_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGex!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbdc8e69c-7e88-40a4-a3cf-94ec07f8e44c_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGex!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbdc8e69c-7e88-40a4-a3cf-94ec07f8e44c_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGex!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbdc8e69c-7e88-40a4-a3cf-94ec07f8e44c_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGex!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbdc8e69c-7e88-40a4-a3cf-94ec07f8e44c_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGex!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbdc8e69c-7e88-40a4-a3cf-94ec07f8e44c_4032x3024.jpeg" width="1456" height="1941" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbdc8e69c-7e88-40a4-a3cf-94ec07f8e44c_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BGex!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbdc8e69c-7e88-40a4-a3cf-94ec07f8e44c_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h1 style="text-align: center;">Scripture in Stone: Qur&#8217;anic Inscriptions and Polemic in the Mosque of C&#243;rdoba</h1><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Rosser Owen writes that &#8220;Of the fifteen verses cited in the edict of 952 [against Masarrism], eleven can be associated with verses used in inscriptions in the C&#243;rdoba Mosque.&#8221;<a href="#_ftn1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> Take, for example, Quran 39:46, located on the aisle between the mi&#7717;r&#257;b vestibule and the Capilla de Villaviciosa: &#8220;Say: &#8216;O God! Creator of the heavens and the earth! Knower of all that is hidden and open! It is Thou that wilt judge between Thy Servants in those matters about which they have differed&#8217;.&#8221;<sup><span> </span></sup><a href="#_ftn2"><sup><span>[2]</span></sup></a> This responded to the Masarris who believed that the soul would be purified following an ascetic life and that there would be no reward or punishment in the afterlife. It could also be that the mi&#7717;r&#257;b dome represented the celestial sphere, recreated within the mosque building.<a href="#_ftn3"><sup><span>[3]</span></sup></a></p><p style="text-align: justify;">We also find verses 40:7-9 on the plaster impost below the vault in front of Ba&#772;b al-Sa&#772;ba&#772;t&#803;:</p><blockquote><p style="text-align: justify;">Our Lord! Thy Reach is over all things, in Mercy and Knowledge. Forgive, then, those who turn in Repentance, and follow Thy Path; and preserve them from the Penalty of the Blazing Fire! And grant, our Lord! That they enter the Gardens of Eternity, which Thou hast promised to them, and to the righteous among their fathers, their wives, and their posterity! For Thou art (He), the Exalted in Might, Full of Wisdom. And preserve them from (all) ills; and any whom Thou dost preserve from ills that Day&#8212;on them wilt Thou have bestowed Mercy indeed.</p></blockquote>
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   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Rural Mosques of al-Andalus]]></title><description><![CDATA[A reference list of Friday mosques, oratories, and minarets from the small towns and villages of Islamic Iberia]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-rural-mosques-of-al-andalus</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-rural-mosques-of-al-andalus</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 20 Jul 2026 17:30:53 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HeS4!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0909e1d-9c76-41d7-b000-f6acc5a00ed4_1499x1080.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zim7!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F56d8739f-aa4a-4b76-80c7-be1295893f42_1280x853.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zim7!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F56d8739f-aa4a-4b76-80c7-be1295893f42_1280x853.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zim7!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F56d8739f-aa4a-4b76-80c7-be1295893f42_1280x853.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zim7!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F56d8739f-aa4a-4b76-80c7-be1295893f42_1280x853.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Mosque of Niebla (Huelva)</h6><p></p><h1 style="text-align: center;">English Version &#127482;&#127480;</h1><p></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Rural mosque architecture in al-Andalus starts from a simple administrative fact: the countryside was organized into provinces (kura), districts (iqlim), fortified centers (hisn), and dependent hamlets (alquer&#237;as), and most rural communities traveled each Friday to a central district mosque for communal prayer. What made a mosque a true aljama, though, was not its size but a single piece of furniture, the minbar. Geographers like al-Idrisi treated its presence as a proxy for a settlement&#8217;s rank, and the khutba delivered from it was a declaration of allegiance to the ruling power, so the pulpit functioned at once as a religious object and as a marker of the state&#8217;s reach into the countryside.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cLIU!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b829c83-bcad-44b7-8799-8c492f006797_3840x2160.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cLIU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b829c83-bcad-44b7-8799-8c492f006797_3840x2160.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cLIU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b829c83-bcad-44b7-8799-8c492f006797_3840x2160.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cLIU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b829c83-bcad-44b7-8799-8c492f006797_3840x2160.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cLIU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b829c83-bcad-44b7-8799-8c492f006797_3840x2160.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cLIU!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b829c83-bcad-44b7-8799-8c492f006797_3840x2160.jpeg" width="1456" height="819" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b829c83-bcad-44b7-8799-8c492f006797_3840x2160.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cLIU!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0b829c83-bcad-44b7-8799-8c492f006797_3840x2160.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Mosque of Almonaster la Real (Huelva)</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Below is a corpus of the mosques and oratories that survive:</p><ul><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Almonaster la Real (Huelva): late ninth or tenth century; longitudinal plan, naves in slight skew to the <em>qibla</em>, semicircular <em>mihrab</em> projecting on the exterior, brick semi-dome</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Puerto de Santa Mar&#237;a / al-Qanatir (C&#225;diz): late tenth or early eleventh century; preserved within the Castillo de San Marcos; two arcades perpendicular to <em>qibla</em></p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Niebla (Huelva): Almohad; five-nave square plan later expanded; eleven-lobed arch on the central nave; cylindrical-core minaret from an earlier Emiral mosque; polygonal <em>mihrab</em></p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">M&#233;rtola (Portugal): Almohad; five-nave plan with T-disposition; high-quality stucco <em>mihrab</em> closely related to the great mosque of Almer&#237;a; <em>minbar</em> chamber attested at M&#233;rtola.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Cuatrovitas (Aljarafe, Sevilla): late twelfth or early thirteenth century; square minaret modeled on the Giralda; Almohad arch types</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Hacienda de Lerena / Hu&#233;var (Sevilla): Almohad; small minaret with cylindrical core, 2.40 m per side</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">San Pedro, Sanl&#250;car la Mayor (Sevilla): Almohad; largest of the Aljarafe group, 4 m per side, minaret served as gateway to the mosque courtyard</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Cortijo del Centeno, Lorca (Murcia): Almohad; three-nave square plan in <em>tapial</em> and brick; <em>minbar</em> chamber with wheel-ruts preserved in pavement; possible funerary annex behind <em>qibla</em> wall</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">La Xara, Simat de Valldigna (Valencia): three-nave plan; <em>minbar</em> chamber preserved; open to Muslim worship until 1531</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Vascos (Toledo): tenth century; wide rectangular plan, five equal naves perpendicular to <em>qibla</em>; rubble and adobe construction; semicircular <em>mihrab</em> cut into <em>tapial</em>; small ablution courtyard occupying western nave; the site also preserves a small neighborhood oratory</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Archidona (M&#225;laga): tenth century; wide rectangular plan; later Nasrid minaret; reused column shafts with plain capitals</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Las Sillas, Marc&#233;n (Huesca): taifa period; two naves parallel to <em>qibla</em> divided by a central arcade; horseshoe arch <em>mihrab</em> with incised alfiz; abandoned around 1100</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Miravet (Castell&#243;n): single undivided nave; semicircular <em>mihrab</em> with a semi-dome; reformed after Christian conquest by James I between 1233 and 1238</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">R&#225;bita de Guardamar (Alicante): late ninth to early eleventh century; central congregational oratory of approximately 114 m&#178;; two narrow naves parallel to <em>qibla</em> separated by a curtain wall; trapezoidal <em>mihrab</em> from earlier <em>musalla</em>; no minaret</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Sa Nitja (Menorca): single very elongated nave (9.6 x 2.8 m); rubble construction with reused materials; simple orientation niche</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Velefique (Almer&#237;a): Almohad <em>hisn</em>; cylindrical-core minaret preserved; community mosque for a cluster of dependent hamlets</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Funerary structures, Gibralfaro, M&#225;laga: twelfth to early thirteenth century; semicircular <em>mihrab</em>-niches in funerary enclosures (<em>rawdas</em>)</p></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;">Susana Calvo Capilla also references, without extended analysis, the mosques of Fi&#241;ana (Almer&#237;a), Baeza (Ja&#233;n), Moura (Portugal), Belmez de Moraleda (Ja&#233;n), and Porcuna (Ja&#233;n), the last two known from foundation inscriptions in unpracticed Kufic that contrast sharply with official epigraphy.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Sources: Calvo Capilla, Susana. 2004. &#8220;Las mezquitas de peque&#241;as ciudades y n&#250;cleos rurales de al-Andalus.&#8221; Ilu. Revista de Ciencias de las Religiones, Anejos X: 39-63.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Niebla and Almonaster la Real photos are from Wikimedia Commons. The Cuatrovitas photo is found here: https://www.turismosevilla.org/en/what-see-and-do/heritage/monuments/almohad-minaret-de-cuatrovitas</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HeS4!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0909e1d-9c76-41d7-b000-f6acc5a00ed4_1499x1080.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HeS4!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb0909e1d-9c76-41d7-b000-f6acc5a00ed4_1499x1080.jpeg 424w, 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style="text-align: center;">Minaret of Cuatrovitas (Aljarafe, Sevilla) </h6><p></p><h1 style="text-align: center;">Versi&#243;n en Espa&#241;ol &#127466;&#127480;</h1><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">La arquitectura de las mezquitas rurales de al-&#193;ndalus parte de un hecho administrativo sencillo: el campo estaba organizado en provincias (kura), distritos (iqlim), centros fortificados (hisn) y alquer&#237;as dependientes, y la mayor&#237;a de las comunidades rurales se desplazaban cada viernes a la mezquita mayor del distrito para la oraci&#243;n comunal. Sin embargo, lo que convert&#237;a una mezquita en una verdadera aljama no era su tama&#241;o, sino una sola pieza de mobiliario: el almimbar. Ge&#243;grafos como al-Idrisi trataban su presencia como un indicio del rango de un asentamiento, y la jutba pronunciada desde &#233;l era una declaraci&#243;n de apoyo y sumisi&#243;n al poder central, de modo que el p&#250;lpito funcionaba a la vez como objeto religioso y como s&#237;mbolo del alcance del poder soberano sobre el campo.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">A continuaci&#243;n, un corpus de las mezquitas y oratorios conservados:</p><ul><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Almonaster la Real (Huelva): finales del siglo IX o siglo X; planta longitudinal, naves en ligero esviaje respecto a la qibla, mihrab semicircular que sobresale al exterior, b&#243;veda de horno de ladrillo</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Puerto de Santa Mar&#237;a / al-Qanatir (C&#225;diz): finales del siglo X o principios del XI; conservada en el interior del Castillo de San Marcos; dos arquer&#237;as perpendiculares a la qibla</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Niebla (Huelva): almohade; planta cuadrada de cinco naves, ampliada despu&#233;s; arco de once l&#243;bulos en la nave central; alminar de n&#250;cleo cil&#237;ndrico de una mezquita emiral anterior; mihrab poligonal</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">M&#233;rtola (Portugal): almohade; planta de cinco naves con disposici&#243;n en T; mihrab de estuco de gran calidad, muy pr&#243;ximo al de la aljama de Almer&#237;a; c&#225;mara del almimbar atestiguada en M&#233;rtola</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Cuatrovitas (Aljarafe, Sevilla): finales del siglo XII o principios del XIII; alminar cuadrado inspirado en la Giralda; arcos de tipo almohade</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Hacienda de Lerena / Hu&#233;var (Sevilla): almohade; alminar peque&#241;o de n&#250;cleo cil&#237;ndrico, de 2,40 m de lado</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">San Pedro, Sanl&#250;car la Mayor (Sevilla): almohade; el mayor del grupo del Aljarafe, de 4 m de lado; el alminar serv&#237;a de acceso al patio de la mezquita</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Cortijo del Centeno, Lorca (Murcia): almohade; planta cuadrada de tres naves en tapial y ladrillo; c&#225;mara del almimbar con huellas de ruedas conservadas en el pavimento; posible anexo funerario tras el muro de la qibla</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">La Xara, Simat de Valldigna (Valencia): planta de tres naves; c&#225;mara del almimbar conservada; abierta al culto musulm&#225;n hasta 1531</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Vascos (Toledo): siglo X; planta rectangular apaisada, cinco naves iguales perpendiculares a la qibla; construcci&#243;n en mamposter&#237;a y adobe; mihrab semicircular excavado en el muro de tapial; peque&#241;o patio de abluciones que ocupa la nave occidental; el yacimiento conserva tambi&#233;n un peque&#241;o oratorio de barrio</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Archidona (M&#225;laga): siglo X; planta rectangular apaisada; alminar nazar&#237; posterior; fustes reutilizados con capiteles lisos</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Las Sillas, Marc&#233;n (Huesca): &#233;poca taifa; dos naves paralelas a la qibla divididas por una arquer&#237;a central; mihrab de arco de herradura con alfiz de l&#237;neas incisas; abandonada hacia el a&#241;o 1100</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Miravet (Castell&#243;n): nave &#250;nica sin divisiones; mihrab semicircular con b&#243;veda de horno; reformada tras la conquista cristiana de Jaime I entre 1233 y 1238</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">R&#225;bita de Guardamar (Alicante): finales del siglo IX a principios del XI; oratorio congregacional central de unos 114 m&#178;; dos naves estrechas paralelas a la qibla separadas por un muro cortina; mihrab trapezoidal heredado de una musalla anterior; sin alminar</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Sa Nitja (Menorca): nave &#250;nica muy alargada (9,6 x 2,8 m); construcci&#243;n en mamposter&#237;a con materiales de acarreo; sencillo nicho de orientaci&#243;n</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Velefique (Almer&#237;a): hisn almohade; alminar de n&#250;cleo cil&#237;ndrico conservado; mezquita comunitaria de un conjunto de alquer&#237;as dependientes</p></li><li><p style="text-align: justify;">Estructuras funerarias, Gibralfaro, M&#225;laga: siglo XII a principios del XIII; nichos de mihrab semicirculares en recintos funerarios (rawdas)</p></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;">Susana Calvo Capilla tambi&#233;n menciona, sin analizarlas en profundidad, las mezquitas de Fi&#241;ana (Almer&#237;a), Baeza (Ja&#233;n), Moura (Portugal), Belmez de Moraleda (Ja&#233;n) y Porcuna (Ja&#233;n), estas dos &#250;ltimas conocidas por inscripciones fundacionales en un c&#250;fico o pseudoc&#250;fico inciso y poco elegante, muy alejado de los cuidados ep&#237;grafes oficiales.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Fuente: Calvo Capilla, Susana. 2004. &#8220;Las mezquitas de peque&#241;as ciudades y n&#250;cleos rurales de al-Andalus&#8221;. Ilu. Revista de Ciencias de las Religiones, Anejos X: 39-63.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Great Mosque of Córdoba, Part 1: Orthodoxy and Opposition]]></title><description><![CDATA[An introduction and first section to a five-part series on architectural charisma and religious power in the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 16 Jul 2026 17:01:10 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XZt3!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2399ca5e-3d10-48f9-9f4b-7fa04be0a253_5712x4284.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 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style="text-align: center;"><strong>The Immortality of Form: Architectural Charisma and Religious Power in the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba</strong> </h1><h1 style="text-align: center;">A Five-Part Series</h1><p style="text-align: justify;">Part 1: Introduction and Orthodoxy and Opposition: The Doctrinal Crisis of 10th-Century al-Andalus</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/open.substack.com/pub/cruzycreciente/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-b9b?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 2: Scripture in Stone: Qur&#8217;anic Inscriptions and Polemic in the Mosque of C&#243;rdoba </a><em><a href="/__u/open.substack.com/pub/cruzycreciente/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-b9b?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix A)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-395">Part 3: Apostasy and Architecture: &#703;Umar ibn &#7716;af&#7779;&#363;n and the Maq&#7779;&#363;ra&#8217;s Ideological Role </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-395">(includes Photo Appendix B)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-947?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 4: Appropriated Forms, Asserted Supremacy: Christian and Imperial Elements in the Mosque&#8217;s Design </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-947?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix C)</a></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">Part 5: Conclusion, The Immortality of Form: C&#243;rdoba&#8217;s Mosque and Its Christian Reincarnations </a><em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">(includes Photo Appendix D) </a></em><a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba-part-848?r=8i4lz7&amp;utm_campaign=post-expanded-share&amp;utm_medium=web">and bibliography</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Note: This essay was written in the spring of 2025 while I was a student at Boston College. I&#8217;m now publishing it here, broken into a series of installments, so it can reach a wider audience.</strong></em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yFSI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yFSI!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yFSI!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yFSI!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yFSI!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yFSI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1092,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:5123151,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/i/207181202?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yFSI!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yFSI!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yFSI!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yFSI!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe83ee96c-b0d7-40a1-97f4-67514145ee22_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h1 style="text-align: center;">Introduction</h1><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">In tenth-century al-Andalus, the Umayyad caliphate faced challenges to its religious and political legitimacy. Internally, heterodox Islamic movements such as Mu&#703;tazilism and Masarrism, alongside the rising Shi&#703;i Fatimid caliphate, advanced competing visions of divine authority and communal leadership. Externally, the Christian kingdoms of the north and insurgent figures like &#703;Umar ibn &#7716;af&#7779;&#363;n threatened the regime&#8217;s territorial integrity and ideological coherence. In response to these converging pressures, the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba emerged not merely as a site of communal worship, but as a calculated architectural intervention&#8212;fusing religious doctrine, political symbolism, and imperial aesthetics into a unified visual language of authority.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">This essay argues that the Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba functioned as a polemical monument designed to assert caliphal legitimacy in a fractured society. Through a close analysis of its Qur&#8217;anic inscriptions, architectural forms, and ceremonial practices, it shows how the mosque addressed multiple audiences at once: rebuking internal heresies, reaffirming Sunni M&#257;lik&#299; orthodoxy, and symbolically vanquishing Christian rivals. Its epigraphic program, likely shaped by the influential q&#257;&#7693;&#299; Mundhir ibn Sa&#703;&#299;d al-Ball&#363;&#7789;&#299;, strategically cited verses that countered theological dissent while inscribing the caliphate within a broader tradition of sacred kingship.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Yet the mosque was not only defensive, it was also assimilative. Drawing on Roman, Visigothic, Byzantine, eastern Islamic elements, and even Christian liturgical forms, it employed a shared architectural vocabulary that would have been familiar to converts and legible across confessional lines. The basilical layout of the <em>maq&#7779;&#363;ra</em>, the triumphal inscriptions over entrances, the relic-like veneration of the Qur&#702;&#257;n, and the use of imported mosaics all echoed older Mediterranean traditions of political theology. These elements, far from compromising Islamic identity, enhanced it: they proclaimed the Umayyads as rightful heirs to a style of imperial rule used stretching from Rome to Byzantium, reimagined through the idiom of Islam.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The final section of the essay turns to the afterlife of these forms, tracing how Christian builders appropriated<a href="#_ftn1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a> the mosque&#8217;s architecture even before the conquest of C&#243;rdoba in 1236. From the royal necropolis of Las Huelgas in Burgos to the Capilla Dorada in Tordesillas (whose designs recall the maq&#7779;&#363;ra of the mosque) C&#243;rdoba&#8217;s visual language was absorbed into Christian sacred architecture, often without full recognition of its Islamic origins. As a result, the boundaries between Christian and Islamic architectural traditions became increasingly porous, giving rise to a hybridized landscape in which the legacy of Islamic power persisted within Christian sacred space.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Taken together, the evidence presented here suggests that <em>architectural charisma</em>, understood as the capacity of built form to project legitimacy, inspire reverence, and consolidate power, was a central mechanism of statecraft in medieval Iberia. The Great Mosque of C&#243;rdoba exemplifies how sacred architecture could contest and co-opt, polemicize and persuade, assert orthodoxy while accommodating the visual habits of a pluralistic society. In doing so, it helped forge a vision of Islamic authority so compelling that even its Christian successors could not help but inherit and perpetuate it.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">To assist the reader in navigating the complex architectural and historical analysis that follows, this essay includes a Photo Appendix organized in parallel with the paper&#8217;s sections. Each appendix subsection contains photographs corresponding to the precise buildings, inscriptions, and architectural features discussed in the body of the text. This structure allows readers to visually reference the material under discussion without interrupting their engagement with the argument or seeking external sources. By aligning images with their relevant chapters in a chronological and thematic manner, the appendix serves as a visual aid and a tool for comprehension by clarifying descriptions, reinforcing key claims, and saving significant time for the reader. It is intended as a navigational resource that ensures the visual richness of the mosque and its successors remains present and intelligible throughout the analytical journey.</p><div><hr></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="#_ftnref1"><sup><span>[1]</span></sup></a><span> </span>Throughout this essay, appropriation designates the incorporation of an existing architectural or decorative vocabulary into a new religious or political setting, not the sense the term has acquired in contemporary debates over cultural appropriation, where it typically implies theft, exploitation, or a power imbalance between the culture borrowing and the culture borrowed from. Some of the instances discussed here were deliberate and ideological, as when Umayyad patrons summoned Byzantine craftsmen or Christian kings commissioned Muslim artisans for royal chapels. Others were more gradual processes of assimilation, absorbed by builders who may never have registered the origin of the forms they were reproducing. I apply the term equally to Muslim and Christian builders throughout, since the pattern of borrowing ran in both directions across a period often remembered, inaccurately, as one of unbroken antagonism.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J3h6!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2941f412-bf45-4491-b696-78b4e6f63833_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J3h6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2941f412-bf45-4491-b696-78b4e6f63833_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J3h6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2941f412-bf45-4491-b696-78b4e6f63833_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J3h6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2941f412-bf45-4491-b696-78b4e6f63833_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J3h6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2941f412-bf45-4491-b696-78b4e6f63833_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J3h6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2941f412-bf45-4491-b696-78b4e6f63833_4032x3024.jpeg" width="1456" height="1941" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2941f412-bf45-4491-b696-78b4e6f63833_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J3h6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2941f412-bf45-4491-b696-78b4e6f63833_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J3h6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2941f412-bf45-4491-b696-78b4e6f63833_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J3h6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2941f412-bf45-4491-b696-78b4e6f63833_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h1 style="text-align: center;"><span>Orthodoxy and Opposition: The Doctrinal Crisis of 10th-Century al-Andalus</span></h1>
      <p>
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   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Cross and Crescent: A New Series on Medieval Iberia]]></title><description><![CDATA[Thirty-three episodes on the peninsula where Christianity, Islam, and Judaism built and contested a shared world, from Rome to 1492.]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/cross-and-crescent-a-new-series-on</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/cross-and-crescent-a-new-series-on</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 13 Jul 2026 20:19:26 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/youtube/w_728,c_limit/5G-VT3aIXu4" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div id="youtube2-5G-VT3aIXu4" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;5G-VT3aIXu4&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/5G-VT3aIXu4?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><h1 style="text-align: center;">English &#127482;&#127480;</h1><p style="text-align: justify;">I&#8217;m starting a new video series on the history of the Iberian Peninsula, from Rome through 1492. This first episode is the introduction, covering who I am, why this history matters, and what the next thirty-three episodes will cover.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">For centuries, the Iberian Peninsula was home to three of the great religious traditions of the western world, Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, living side by side in a relationship that was neither a golden age of tolerance nor a permanent state of war, but something far more interesting. In this video I explain why I begin with Rome rather than with the Arab conquest of 711, why I end at 1492, and how a series like this can slow down and sit with the evidence in ways a general survey textbook cannot.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">I also talk about my own path to this material, from a classroom in Burgos to my current dissertation work on the Royal Monastery of Las Huelgas, and about the scholars who have shaped how I think about this history, among them Joseph O&#8217;Callaghan, Thomas Glick, David Nirenberg, Bernard Reilly, Simon Barton, and Richard Fletcher.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Subtitles in Spanish are available through YouTube&#8217;s system on the video. If you know Spain, or want to, or are simply curious how a corner of medieval Europe became the root system of half the Atlantic world, I think you&#8217;ll find something here.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Watch the video below, and let me know what you think in the comments.</p><h1 style="text-align: center;">Espa&#241;ol &#127466;&#127480;</h1><p style="text-align: justify;">Empiezo una nueva serie de v&#237;deos sobre la historia de la pen&#237;nsula ib&#233;rica, desde Roma hasta 1492. Este primer episodio es la introducci&#243;n, y en &#233;l cuento qui&#233;n soy, por qu&#233; importa esta historia y qu&#233; cubrir&#225;n los pr&#243;ximos treinta y tres episodios.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Durante siglos, la pen&#237;nsula ib&#233;rica fue el hogar de tres de las grandes tradiciones religiosas del mundo occidental, el cristianismo, el islam y el juda&#237;smo, que convivieron durante generaciones en una relaci&#243;n que no fue ni una edad de oro de tolerancia ni un estado permanente de guerra, sino algo mucho m&#225;s interesante. En este v&#237;deo explico por qu&#233; empiezo con Roma y no con la conquista &#225;rabe de 711, por qu&#233; termino en 1492, y c&#243;mo una serie como esta puede detenerse a examinar la evidencia con calma, de un modo que un manual general no permite.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Tambi&#233;n hablo de mi propio camino hasta esta materia, desde un aula en Burgos hasta mi trabajo actual de tesis sobre el Real Monasterio de Las Huelgas, y de los historiadores que han dado forma a mi manera de pensar esta historia, entre ellos Joseph O&#8217;Callaghan, Thomas Glick, David Nirenberg, Bernard Reilly, Simon Barton y Richard Fletcher.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Los subt&#237;tulos en espa&#241;ol est&#225;n disponibles a trav&#233;s del sistema de YouTube en el v&#237;deo. Si conoces Espa&#241;a, o quieres conocerla, o simplemente sientes curiosidad por c&#243;mo un rinc&#243;n de la Europa medieval se convirti&#243; en la ra&#237;z de buena parte del mundo atl&#225;ntico, creo que aqu&#237; encontrar&#225;s algo de inter&#233;s.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Mira el v&#237;deo a continuaci&#243;n y cu&#233;ntame qu&#233; te parece en los comentarios.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Tower of San Esteban | La torre de San Esteban ]]></title><description><![CDATA[One of Burgos's most overlooked churches | Una de las iglesias m&#225;s ignoradas de Burgos]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-tower-of-san-esteban-la-torre</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-tower-of-san-esteban-la-torre</guid><pubDate>Thu, 09 Jul 2026 19:45:11 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcf8!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffc86e2c1-bc9a-41bf-8abc-66c9fac745f5_4032x3024.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcf8!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffc86e2c1-bc9a-41bf-8abc-66c9fac745f5_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcf8!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffc86e2c1-bc9a-41bf-8abc-66c9fac745f5_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcf8!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffc86e2c1-bc9a-41bf-8abc-66c9fac745f5_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcf8!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffc86e2c1-bc9a-41bf-8abc-66c9fac745f5_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffc86e2c1-bc9a-41bf-8abc-66c9fac745f5_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!jcf8!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffc86e2c1-bc9a-41bf-8abc-66c9fac745f5_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h1 style="text-align: center;">Video</h1><div id="youtube2-_ILcKVbkyzg" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;_ILcKVbkyzg&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/_ILcKVbkyzg?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><h1 style="text-align: center;">English &#127482;&#127480;</h1><p style="text-align: justify;">In this video we climb the narrow tower of the church of San Esteban in Burgos, Spain, to take in the views from the top. This is, in my opinion, one of the most overlooked churches in the city, and I am glad to offer you a rare glimpse of it, even if only through a screen. The video moves between English and Spanish, so I recommend enabling YouTube&#8217;s auto-translated captions for whichever language you need. The accuracy is solid.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">P.S. The Museum of the Retablo, now housed inside the church, is well worth a visit. It gives you a strong sense of the history of Christian art in Burgos across the centuries.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OnMZ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1d65544-aa00-427c-bc6f-5665e8699219_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OnMZ!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd1d65544-aa00-427c-bc6f-5665e8699219_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OnMZ!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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style="text-align: center;">Espa&#241;ol &#127466;&#127480;</h1><p style="text-align: justify;">En este v&#237;deo subimos la estrecha torre de la iglesia de San Esteban de Burgos para contemplar las vistas desde lo alto. Es, en mi opini&#243;n, una de las iglesias m&#225;s ignoradas de la ciudad, y me alegra ofreceros una visi&#243;n poco habitual de ella, aunque sea a trav&#233;s de una pantalla. El v&#237;deo alterna entre ingl&#233;s y espa&#241;ol, as&#237; que os recomiendo activar los subt&#237;tulos traducidos autom&#225;ticamente de YouTube en el idioma que necesit&#233;is. La precisi&#243;n es bastante buena.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El Museo del Retablo, instalado hoy en el interior del templo, merece una visita. Os da una idea muy clara de la historia del arte cristiano en Burgos a lo largo de los siglos.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J8wk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffb602f3a-374e-4347-a6b0-8b75bbbfb9f4_3024x1701.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J8wk!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffb602f3a-374e-4347-a6b0-8b75bbbfb9f4_3024x1701.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!J8wk!, 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class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nEuY!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc9baede2-0faf-4f65-bf58-1b3370f69d32_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nEuY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc9baede2-0faf-4f65-bf58-1b3370f69d32_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nEuY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, 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style="text-align: justify;">For those reading this by email, head over to my Instagram for my recent history shorts. There has been a lot of good material lately.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Para los que le&#233;is esto por correo electr&#243;nico, pasaos por mi Instagram para ver mis &#250;ltimos v&#237;deos cortos de historia. Ha habido mucho material interesante &#250;ltimamente.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://www.instagram.com/cruzycreciente/">https://www.instagram.com/cruzycreciente/</a></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Complete Tour of the Puerta del Sarmental at the Cathedral of Burgos]]></title><description><![CDATA[Bishop Mauricio, musical angels, and the making of a Gothic masterpiece]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/complete-tour-of-the-puerta-del-sarmental</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/complete-tour-of-the-puerta-del-sarmental</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 02 Jul 2026 03:23:27 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ucjz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd950ad27-73d9-433c-9623-f38ec313a67a_3024x1701.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ucjz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd950ad27-73d9-433c-9623-f38ec313a67a_3024x1701.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ucjz!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd950ad27-73d9-433c-9623-f38ec313a67a_3024x1701.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Ucjz!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, 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style="text-align: justify;"><em>Carved in the thirteenth century during the reign of Fernando III, the Puerta del Sarmental was designed under Bishop Mauricio of Burgos and carries a program of heavenly kingship, apostolic authority, and Old Testament prophecy. We walk through the full portal section by section, from the apostles at the base to Christ in Majesty at the center, and up through the musical court of kings and angels above. Along the way, there are details worth pausing on: the figure of Don Mauricio, the bishop who founded this cathedral; the harpies carved into the capitals; and a rose window whose interior colors you have to see.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>This video is available now for paid subscribers.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">&#8212;</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Tallada en el siglo XIII durante el reinado de Fernando III, la Puerta del Sarmental fue concebida bajo el patrocinio del obispo Mauricio de Burgos y despliega un programa de realeza celestial, autoridad apost&#243;lica y profec&#237;a veterotestamentaria. Recorremos la portada secci&#243;n por secci&#243;n, desde los ap&#243;stoles en la base hasta Cristo en Majestad en el centro, y m&#225;s arriba hasta la corte musical de reyes y &#225;ngeles. Por el camino hay detalles en los que vale la pena detenerse: la figura de don Mauricio, el obispo que fund&#243; esta catedral; las arp&#237;as talladas en los capiteles; y un roset&#243;n cuyo interior hay que ver.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Este v&#237;deo est&#225; disponible ahora para los suscriptores de pago.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2ElK!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe875f6d1-0c42-4006-9166-8d3171d9c48b_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2ElK!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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      <p>
          <a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/complete-tour-of-the-puerta-del-sarmental">
              Read more
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   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[A UNESCO Site Is Faking History with AI | Un yacimiento de la UNESCO está falsificando la historia con IA]]></title><description><![CDATA[On AI-generated imagery, caliphal textiles, and what institutions owe the historical record | Sobre las im&#225;genes generadas por inteligencia artificial]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/a-unesco-site-is-faking-history-with</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/a-unesco-site-is-faking-history-with</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 26 Jun 2026 07:59:59 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HLyA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5d46ed5-07e2-493e-9924-5f9a52c16a66_5712x4284.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RCNO!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5e64a56-f82d-4ccf-ba7e-ea95aec1dfd2_2422x1762.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RCNO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5e64a56-f82d-4ccf-ba7e-ea95aec1dfd2_2422x1762.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RCNO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5e64a56-f82d-4ccf-ba7e-ea95aec1dfd2_2422x1762.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RCNO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5e64a56-f82d-4ccf-ba7e-ea95aec1dfd2_2422x1762.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RCNO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5e64a56-f82d-4ccf-ba7e-ea95aec1dfd2_2422x1762.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5e64a56-f82d-4ccf-ba7e-ea95aec1dfd2_2422x1762.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RCNO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa5e64a56-f82d-4ccf-ba7e-ea95aec1dfd2_2422x1762.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>The Conjunto Arqueol&#243;gico Madinat al-Zahra, the palace-city of the Cordoban caliphate and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has been posting AI-generated images on Instagram to bring its history to life for a modern audience. The results are wrong in ways that matter. The casket the AI caliph holds bears no resemblance to the actual arqueta califal in the site&#8217;s own collection. The robes he wears belong to no textile tradition that has anything to do with Umayyad C&#243;rdoba. The caption describing the site gestures vaguely toward &#8220;centuries&#8221; when the complex stood for roughly seventy years. This essay breaks down exactly what the images get wrong, why it matters, and what it means when the institution charged with communicating a historical site to the public applies a lower standard of accuracy to the platform that reaches the most people.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">&#8212;</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>El Conjunto Arqueol&#243;gico Madinat al-Zahra, la ciudad palatina del califato cordob&#233;s y Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO, lleva tiempo publicando im&#225;genes generadas por inteligencia artificial en Instagram con el fin de acercar su historia al p&#250;blico contempor&#225;neo. Los resultados son err&#243;neos de maneras que importan. El cofre que sostiene el califa artificial no guarda ning&#250;n parecido con la arqueta califal real que conserva el propio yacimiento. Las vestiduras que luce no pertenecen a ninguna tradici&#243;n textil que tenga que ver con la C&#243;rdoba omeya. La descripci&#243;n del conjunto alude vagamente a &#8220;siglos&#8221; cuando el complejo estuvo en activo durante aproximadamente setenta a&#241;os. Este ensayo desglosa con precisi&#243;n qu&#233; fallan esas im&#225;genes, por qu&#233; eso importa y qu&#233; significa que la instituci&#243;n encargada de comunicar la historia de un yacimiento al p&#250;blico aplique un criterio de rigor menor en la plataforma que llega a m&#225;s personas.</em></p><div id="youtube2-7_124akkZTk" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;7_124akkZTk&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/7_124akkZTk?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>English Version &#127482;&#127480;</strong></h1><h1 style="text-align: center;">A UNESCO Site Is Faking History with AI</h1><p style="text-align: justify;">AI is being used to fake history, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site is doing it. The Conjunto Arqueol&#243;gico Madinat al-Zahra, the archaeological site outside C&#243;rdoba that was once the palace-city of the Cordoban caliphate, has been posting AI-generated images on Instagram meant to bring the site to life for a modern audience. Look at these two images side by side. One is AI. You can probably tell from the image quality alone, but look closer. The AI box looks nothing like the real arqueta califal, the actual casket made in the royal workshops of al-Hakam II of C&#243;rdoba. The designs are wrong. The inscriptions are missing. It is not even close. This is a UNESCO-linked account that cannot even get the most famous object in its own collection right. I am going to break down exactly what they got wrong, why it matters, and why we cannot let this become the new normal.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RMKa!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ba83d03-4426-4edd-bb2f-1b107cbc8af9_3561x2670.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RMKa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ba83d03-4426-4edd-bb2f-1b107cbc8af9_3561x2670.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RMKa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ba83d03-4426-4edd-bb2f-1b107cbc8af9_3561x2670.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RMKa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ba83d03-4426-4edd-bb2f-1b107cbc8af9_3561x2670.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RMKa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ba83d03-4426-4edd-bb2f-1b107cbc8af9_3561x2670.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RMKa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ba83d03-4426-4edd-bb2f-1b107cbc8af9_3561x2670.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ba83d03-4426-4edd-bb2f-1b107cbc8af9_3561x2670.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RMKa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ba83d03-4426-4edd-bb2f-1b107cbc8af9_3561x2670.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RMKa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ba83d03-4426-4edd-bb2f-1b107cbc8af9_3561x2670.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RMKa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0ba83d03-4426-4edd-bb2f-1b107cbc8af9_3561x2670.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">Casket of Hisham II, Girona Cathedral (made in 976)</h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2l1G!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F54358cf1-0da0-4361-952d-6e9585d2933d_360x258.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2l1G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F54358cf1-0da0-4361-952d-6e9585d2933d_360x258.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2l1G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F54358cf1-0da0-4361-952d-6e9585d2933d_360x258.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2l1G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F54358cf1-0da0-4361-952d-6e9585d2933d_360x258.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2l1G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F54358cf1-0da0-4361-952d-6e9585d2933d_360x258.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2l1G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F54358cf1-0da0-4361-952d-6e9585d2933d_360x258.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: justify;">Let me start with a simple comparison. One of the most celebrated objects in the entire corpus of Cordoban caliphal art is this casket made in the royal workshops, covered in dense vegetal arabesques and Arabic inscriptions that identify the workshop, the patron, and the date of production down to the year. These inscriptions are not decoration. They are the object. They are what makes an box a caliphal object rather than just a nice piece of furniture. In the AI image posted by the Madinat al-Zahra account, meant to visualize the caliph al-Hakam II presenting this very casket to his son Hisham, the box he holds has none of that. It is a generic octagonal chest with vague geometric carving and no Arabic inscription anywhere on its surface. If you put the real arqueta next to the AI version, and I am going to do exactly that, they are simply different objects. This is not a matter of artistic interpretation. The real casket is documented, photographed, studied, and housed in a museum. The institution that runs this account has access to that scholarship. They chose not to use it.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FH5o!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ebe8462-b6ba-4412-acba-666a7e9846ff_550x1250.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FH5o!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ebe8462-b6ba-4412-acba-666a7e9846ff_550x1250.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FH5o!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ebe8462-b6ba-4412-acba-666a7e9846ff_550x1250.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FH5o!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ebe8462-b6ba-4412-acba-666a7e9846ff_550x1250.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FH5o!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ebe8462-b6ba-4412-acba-666a7e9846ff_550x1250.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FH5o!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9ebe8462-b6ba-4412-acba-666a7e9846ff_550x1250.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><div class="instagram-embed-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;instagram_id&quot;:&quot;DZCS8kFDiQ-&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;CA Medina Azahara on Instagram: \&quot;&#129504; &#191;Te imaginas el momento en &#8230;&quot;,&quot;author_name&quot;:&quot;@camadinatcordoba&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/__ss-rehost__IG-snapshot-DZCS8kFDiQ-.jpg&quot;,&quot;like_count&quot;:23,&quot;comment_count&quot;:6,&quot;profile_pic_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/__ss-rehost__IG-profile-pic-DZCS8kFDiQ-.png&quot;,&quot;follower_count&quot;:null,&quot;timestamp&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true}" data-component-name="InstagramToDOM"></div><p style="text-align: justify;">The same problem runs through the clothing. The caliph in the image wears a white wound turban with a jeweled pin at the front. I want to be direct about what that is: it is Aladdin. It is the visual shorthand that a search engine produces when you type &#8220;medieval Islamic ruler,&#8221; a costume drawing on Abbasid and later Ottoman convention that has nothing to do with the specific dress culture of Umayyad C&#243;rdoba. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Y_Fm!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a0bef7f-bb45-40dd-b759-e62d3e01679d_1803x1080.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Y_Fm!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a0bef7f-bb45-40dd-b759-e62d3e01679d_1803x1080.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Y_Fm!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a0bef7f-bb45-40dd-b759-e62d3e01679d_1803x1080.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Y_Fm!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a0bef7f-bb45-40dd-b759-e62d3e01679d_1803x1080.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Y_Fm!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a0bef7f-bb45-40dd-b759-e62d3e01679d_1803x1080.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Y_Fm!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a0bef7f-bb45-40dd-b759-e62d3e01679d_1803x1080.jpeg" width="1803" height="1080" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a0bef7f-bb45-40dd-b759-e62d3e01679d_1803x1080.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Y_Fm!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a0bef7f-bb45-40dd-b759-e62d3e01679d_1803x1080.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Y_Fm!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a0bef7f-bb45-40dd-b759-e62d3e01679d_1803x1080.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Y_Fm!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a0bef7f-bb45-40dd-b759-e62d3e01679d_1803x1080.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;"><em>Aladdin</em> (1992 Disney film)</h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yctc!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F583b5e95-44c4-4cba-82fb-575430cd21c6_1310x532.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yctc!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F583b5e95-44c4-4cba-82fb-575430cd21c6_1310x532.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yctc!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F583b5e95-44c4-4cba-82fb-575430cd21c6_1310x532.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Yctc!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F583b5e95-44c4-4cba-82fb-575430cd21c6_1310x532.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-6cN!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd702c230-9da2-4ffe-beb0-75c55a04e424_540x410.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-6cN!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd702c230-9da2-4ffe-beb0-75c55a04e424_540x410.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-6cN!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd702c230-9da2-4ffe-beb0-75c55a04e424_540x410.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-6cN!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd702c230-9da2-4ffe-beb0-75c55a04e424_540x410.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-6cN!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd702c230-9da2-4ffe-beb0-75c55a04e424_540x410.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-6cN!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd702c230-9da2-4ffe-beb0-75c55a04e424_540x410.png" width="540" height="410" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd702c230-9da2-4ffe-beb0-75c55a04e424_540x410.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-6cN!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd702c230-9da2-4ffe-beb0-75c55a04e424_540x410.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-6cN!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd702c230-9da2-4ffe-beb0-75c55a04e424_540x410.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!-6cN!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd702c230-9da2-4ffe-beb0-75c55a04e424_540x410.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">Veil of Hish&#257;m II, Spanish Umayyad period, 976&#8211;1013. Taquet&#233; with inwoven tapestry weave in silk, linen, and gold thread. From the Church of Santa Mar&#237;a del Rivero, San Esteban de Gormaz, Soria. 110.5 &#215; 40 cm.</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The Cordoban caliphs wore almaizares, long rectangular cloths of fine silk wrapped as a combined veil and headdress with a decorative band suspended to one side. We know this because they survive. The Veil of Hisham II, now in the collections studied by Louise Mackie in Cleveland, is a remarkable object: a crimson linen ground woven in taqu&#233; with elaborate tapestry bands bearing pearl-outlined octagons filled with birds and quadrupeds, flanked by inscriptions in foliated kufic script that name the caliph, invoke God&#8217;s blessing on the Commander of the Believers, and identify the workshop that produced it. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OcYz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b401706-e6bc-4b10-9263-be9cee968f4f_3400x563.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OcYz!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b401706-e6bc-4b10-9263-be9cee968f4f_3400x563.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OcYz!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b401706-e6bc-4b10-9263-be9cee968f4f_3400x563.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OcYz!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b401706-e6bc-4b10-9263-be9cee968f4f_3400x563.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OcYz!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b401706-e6bc-4b10-9263-be9cee968f4f_3400x563.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OcYz!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b401706-e6bc-4b10-9263-be9cee968f4f_3400x563.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!OcYz!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b401706-e6bc-4b10-9263-be9cee968f4f_3400x563.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">Tiraz of Caliph Abd al-Rahman III, Spanish Umayyad period, AH 330 / 941&#8211;42 AD. Drawing; 18.2 &#215; 117.1 cm. From the reliquary of Santa Librada, Cathedral of Sig&#252;enza. Cleveland Museum of Art, Anonymous Gift, 1977.188.</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">The tiraz band of Abd al-Rahman III, whose name appears in monumental kufic letters twelve centimeters tall, follows the same logic. Every high-status Andalusi textile that survives from this period is structured around Arabic inscription as a load-bearing element of the design. The inscription is not added onto the garment. It is what the garment says. The robe in the AI image, blue silk with gold geometric borders and not an Arabic letter in sight, belongs to no textile tradition that has anything to do with the caliphal court of C&#243;rdoba. The AI defaulted to a generic visual grammar of Islamic medieval power that collapsed a thousand miles and three centuries of distinct political and artistic culture into one image, and a UNESCO site published it as if it were a reconstruction.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Then there is this caption. One of the posts describes Madinat al-Zahra as a place whose walls witnessed events across centuries. Madinat al-Zahra was founded by Abd al-Rahman III around 936 and was sacked and burned during the Berber revolt beginning in 1009, giving the complex an active lifespan of roughly seventy years. It did not stand for centuries. It stood for about three generations, which is part of what makes it historically fascinating and archaeologically remarkable: the entire site is essentially a single stratigraphic moment frozen in time. For the institution charged with communicating that history to the public to describe it with a vague gesture toward &#8220;centuries&#8221; suggests that whoever wrote or approved that caption either did not know the basic chronology or did not check it. Either way, the institution failed its own subject.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HLyA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5d46ed5-07e2-493e-9924-5f9a52c16a66_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HLyA!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5d46ed5-07e2-493e-9924-5f9a52c16a66_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HLyA!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5d46ed5-07e2-493e-9924-5f9a52c16a66_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HLyA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5d46ed5-07e2-493e-9924-5f9a52c16a66_5712x4284.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5d46ed5-07e2-493e-9924-5f9a52c16a66_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HLyA!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5d46ed5-07e2-493e-9924-5f9a52c16a66_5712x4284.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HLyA!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5d46ed5-07e2-493e-9924-5f9a52c16a66_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HLyA!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5d46ed5-07e2-493e-9924-5f9a52c16a66_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">Sal&#243;n Rico/Sal&#243;n de Abd al-Rahman III (built between 953-957)</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">When I commented on one of these posts to ask why they were using AI when they have access to the real textiles, the real architecture, and actual specialists, their response was to tell me that their YouTube video is based on site research and period sources. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JtJa!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JtJa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JtJa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JtJa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JtJa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JtJa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png" width="796" height="776" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:776,&quot;width&quot;:796,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:173221,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/i/203472649?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JtJa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JtJa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JtJa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JtJa!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F82b01a44-7f1b-4189-b074-61ef8e732375_796x776.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">That is not an answer to my question. My question was about Instagram, where the reach is larger, the audience is broader, and the AI images are doing their work on people who will never watch the YouTube video. If the YouTube content is genuinely grounded in scholarly evidence, that is good, but it makes the Instagram problem worse rather than better. It means the institution knows what rigorous historical communication looks like and applied a different standard to the platform that reaches the most people. That is not a defense. That is a description of the problem.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wohy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87e1e184-4ab0-42f4-b6f6-0702cd97f88e_1362x1578.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wohy!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87e1e184-4ab0-42f4-b6f6-0702cd97f88e_1362x1578.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wohy!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87e1e184-4ab0-42f4-b6f6-0702cd97f88e_1362x1578.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wohy!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87e1e184-4ab0-42f4-b6f6-0702cd97f88e_1362x1578.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wohy!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87e1e184-4ab0-42f4-b6f6-0702cd97f88e_1362x1578.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wohy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87e1e184-4ab0-42f4-b6f6-0702cd97f88e_1362x1578.png" width="1362" height="1578" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87e1e184-4ab0-42f4-b6f6-0702cd97f88e_1362x1578.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wohy!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87e1e184-4ab0-42f4-b6f6-0702cd97f88e_1362x1578.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wohy!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87e1e184-4ab0-42f4-b6f6-0702cd97f88e_1362x1578.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wohy!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87e1e184-4ab0-42f4-b6f6-0702cd97f88e_1362x1578.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/@conjuntoarqueologicomadina3992/videos">https://www.youtube.com/@conjuntoarqueologicomadina3992/videos</a></h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">When I checked the YouTube channel they pointed me to, the most recent upload was a concert from ten months ago, and the last serious archaeological reconstruction content was posted four years back. The channel they cited as their standard of scholarly rigor is one they stopped using. Meanwhile the AI images kept coming on Instagram.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">I am not the only person saying this. Iv&#225;n Escamilla Gonz&#225;lez, a historian at the Universidad Nacional Aut&#243;noma de M&#233;xico, one of the most important research universities in Latin America, has been vocal about how damaging this kind of AI history content is becoming. The concern is not technophobia. It is about what gets normalized. When a UNESCO-funded institution with world-class credentials, with the actual site, the actual objects, and the actual specialists on hand, decides that AI-generated imagery is an acceptable way to represent the historical record to a mass audience, it sends a signal. It tells every other institution that this is fine. It tells content creators that this is the standard. And it tells the public that plausible-looking imagery is the same thing as accurate reconstruction, which it is not, and which it cannot be, because AI is trained on what already exists online, not on the archive, not on the unpublished excavation report, not on the fragment in the storage drawer that no one has photographed yet.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">History advances because people look closely at things, spend years learning what to look for, and then see something that was not visible before. That is not a romantic description of the humanities. It is a functional description of how knowledge actually grows. AI can only recombine what it has already been given. It cannot read a new document, recognize an anomaly in a textile weave, or argue with a received interpretation on the basis of evidence. The moment we normalize it as a substitute for that work, we are not making history more accessible. We are making it shallower, and dressing that shallowness behind an institution makes it so that the people watching do not notice the difference.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mI4b!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04187d59-f754-49e3-8a2d-bafe9004df5a_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mI4b!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F04187d59-f754-49e3-8a2d-bafe9004df5a_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, 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style="text-align: justify;">The next time you see a carefully made history video or read a well-sourced article by someone who has actually spent time with this material, that work represents years of language training, archive hours, and the kind of sustained attention to detail that a five-second AI prompt cannot replicate. It deserves your attention precisely because it is not easy to produce. And institutions like Madinat al-Zahra, which exist because generations of scholars and excavators dedicated their lives to recovering a lost world, owe that tradition something better than a chatbot in a white turban.</p><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Versi&#243;n en Espa&#241;ol &#127466;&#127480;</strong></h1><h1 style="text-align: center;">Un yacimiento de la UNESCO est&#225; falsificando la historia con IA</h1><p style="text-align: justify;">AI est&#225; siendo utilizada para falsificar la historia, y un Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO lo est&#225; haciendo. El Conjunto Arqueol&#243;gico Madinat al-Zahra, el yacimiento arqueol&#243;gico a las afueras de C&#243;rdoba que fue en su d&#237;a la ciudad palatina del califato cordob&#233;s, lleva tiempo publicando im&#225;genes generadas por inteligencia artificial en Instagram con el prop&#243;sito de acercar el yacimiento al p&#250;blico contempor&#225;neo. Mirad estas dos im&#225;genes una junto a la otra. Una es IA. Probablemente lo not&#233;is por la propia calidad de la imagen, pero fijaos mejor. La arqueta de la IA no se parece en nada a la arqueta califal real, el cofre fabricado en los talleres reales de al-Hakam II de C&#243;rdoba. Los dise&#241;os son incorrectos. Las inscripciones no aparecen. No se le parece ni de lejos. Esta es una cuenta vinculada a la UNESCO que no es capaz de reproducir correctamente el objeto m&#225;s c&#233;lebre de su propia colecci&#243;n. Voy a desglosar exactamente qu&#233; han hecho mal, por qu&#233; importa y por qu&#233; no podemos permitir que esto se convierta en la nueva normalidad.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Empecemos por una comparaci&#243;n sencilla. Uno de los objetos m&#225;s celebrados de todo el corpus del arte califal cordob&#233;s es este cofre fabricado en los talleres reales, cubierto de densos arabescos vegetales e inscripciones &#225;rabes que identifican el taller, el comitente y la fecha de producci&#243;n con precisi&#243;n anual. Esas inscripciones no son decoraci&#243;n. Son el objeto. Son lo que convierte una caja en un objeto califal y no en un simple mueble de lujo. En la imagen de IA publicada por la cuenta de Madinat al-Zahra, destinada a visualizar al califa al-Hakam II presentando ese mismo cofre a su hijo Hisham, la caja que sostiene no tiene nada de eso. Es un cofre octogonal gen&#233;rico con una talla geom&#233;trica imprecisa y ninguna inscripci&#243;n &#225;rabe en toda su superficie. Si pon&#233;is la arqueta real junto a la versi&#243;n de IA, y eso es exactamente lo que voy a hacer, son sencillamente objetos distintos. No es una cuesti&#243;n de interpretaci&#243;n art&#237;stica. La arqueta real est&#225; documentada, fotografiada, estudiada y custodiada en un museo. La instituci&#243;n que gestiona esta cuenta tiene acceso a esa bibliograf&#237;a. Eligieron no utilizarla.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El mismo problema recorre la indumentaria. El califa de la imagen lleva un turbante blanco enrollado con un alfiler enjoyado en la parte delantera. Quiero ser directo sobre lo que eso es: es Aladino. Es el atajo visual que produce un buscador cuando se escribe &#8220;gobernante isl&#225;mico medieval&#8221;, un disfraz que bebe de la convenci&#243;n abas&#237; y otomana posterior y que no tiene nada que ver con la cultura indumentaria espec&#237;fica de la C&#243;rdoba omeya. Los califas cordobeses llevaban almaizares, pa&#241;os rectangulares largos de seda fina envueltos como velo y tocado combinados con una banda decorativa suspendida a un lado. Lo sabemos porque han sobrevivido. El Velo de Hisham II, conservado en las colecciones estudiadas por Louise Mackie en Cleveland, es un objeto extraordinario: un fondo de lino carmes&#237; tejido en taqu&#233; con elaboradas bandas de tapicer&#237;a que presentan oct&#243;gonos perfilados con perlas rellenos de aves y cuadr&#250;pedos, flanqueados por inscripciones en c&#250;fico foliado que nombran al califa, invocan la bendici&#243;n de Dios sobre el Comendador de los Creyentes e identifican el taller que lo produjo. La banda de tiraz de Abd al-Rahman III, cuyo nombre aparece en letras c&#250;ficas monumentales de doce cent&#237;metros de altura, responde a la misma l&#243;gica. Todos los tejidos andalus&#237;es de alto rango que han llegado hasta nosotros de este per&#237;odo est&#225;n estructurados en torno a la inscripci&#243;n &#225;rabe como elemento portante del dise&#241;o. La inscripci&#243;n no se a&#241;ade a la prenda. Es lo que la prenda dice. La t&#250;nica de la imagen de IA, seda azul con cenefas geom&#233;tricas doradas y ni una letra &#225;rabe a la vista, no pertenece a ninguna tradici&#243;n textil que tenga que ver con la corte califal de C&#243;rdoba. La IA recurri&#243; a una gram&#225;tica visual gen&#233;rica del poder isl&#225;mico medieval que comprimi&#243; mil kil&#243;metros y tres siglos de cultura pol&#237;tica y art&#237;stica diferenciada en una sola imagen, y un yacimiento de la UNESCO la public&#243; como si fuera una reconstrucci&#243;n.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Luego est&#225; este pie de foto. Una de las publicaciones describe Madinat al-Zahra como un lugar cuyos muros fueron testigos de acontecimientos a lo largo de siglos. Madinat al-Zahra fue fundada por Abd al-Rahman III hacia el a&#241;o 936 y fue saqueada e incendiada durante la revuelta bereber que comenz&#243; en 1009, lo que da al conjunto una vida activa de aproximadamente setenta a&#241;os. No estuvo en pie durante siglos. Estuvo en pie durante unas tres generaciones, que es precisamente parte de lo que lo hace hist&#243;ricamente fascinante y arqueol&#243;gicamente extraordinario: el yacimiento entero es esencialmente un momento estratigr&#225;fico &#250;nico congelado en el tiempo. Que la instituci&#243;n encargada de comunicar esa historia al p&#250;blico la describa con un gesto vago hacia los &#8220;siglos&#8221; sugiere que quien redact&#243; o aprob&#243; ese pie de foto o desconoc&#237;a la cronolog&#237;a b&#225;sica o no se molest&#243; en verificarla. En cualquier caso, la instituci&#243;n le fall&#243; a su propio objeto de estudio.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Cuando coment&#233; en una de esas publicaciones para preguntar por qu&#233; utilizaban IA cuando tienen acceso a los tejidos reales, la arquitectura real y especialistas reales, su respuesta fue decirme que su v&#237;deo de YouTube se basa en investigaci&#243;n del yacimiento y en fuentes de &#233;poca. Eso no es una respuesta a mi pregunta. Mi pregunta era sobre Instagram, donde el alcance es mayor, el p&#250;blico es m&#225;s amplio y las im&#225;genes de IA realizan su trabajo sobre personas que nunca ver&#225;n el v&#237;deo de YouTube. Si el contenido de YouTube est&#225; genuinamente fundamentado en evidencia acad&#233;mica, eso es positivo, pero hace que el problema de Instagram sea peor, no mejor. Significa que la instituci&#243;n sabe lo que parece una comunicaci&#243;n hist&#243;rica rigurosa y aplic&#243; un criterio distinto a la plataforma que llega a m&#225;s personas. Eso no es una defensa. Es una descripci&#243;n del problema.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Cuando revis&#233; el canal de YouTube al que me remit&#237;an, la publicaci&#243;n m&#225;s reciente era un concierto de hace diez meses, y el &#250;ltimo contenido serio de reconstrucci&#243;n arqueol&#243;gica se hab&#237;a subido hace cuatro a&#241;os. El canal que citaron como su est&#225;ndar de rigor acad&#233;mico es uno que dejaron de utilizar. Mientras tanto, las im&#225;genes de IA segu&#237;an apareciendo en Instagram.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">No soy el &#250;nico que dice esto. Iv&#225;n Escamilla Gonz&#225;lez, historiador de la Universidad Nacional Aut&#243;noma de M&#233;xico, una de las universidades de investigaci&#243;n m&#225;s importantes de Am&#233;rica Latina, ha sido muy expl&#237;cito sobre el da&#241;o que este tipo de contenido hist&#243;rico generado por IA est&#225; causando. La preocupaci&#243;n no es tecnofobia. Tiene que ver con lo que se normaliza. Cuando una instituci&#243;n financiada por la UNESCO con credenciales de primer nivel mundial, con el yacimiento real, los objetos reales y los especialistas reales a su disposici&#243;n, decide que las im&#225;genes generadas por IA son una forma aceptable de representar el registro hist&#243;rico ante una audiencia masiva, est&#225; enviando una se&#241;al. Le dice a cada otra instituci&#243;n que esto est&#225; bien. Les dice a los creadores de contenido que este es el est&#225;ndar. Y le dice al p&#250;blico que una imagen de aspecto plausible es lo mismo que una reconstrucci&#243;n precisa, lo cual no es as&#237; y no puede serlo, porque la IA est&#225; entrenada con lo que ya existe en l&#237;nea, no con el archivo, no con el informe de excavaci&#243;n in&#233;dito, no con el fragmento en el caj&#243;n del almac&#233;n que nadie ha fotografiado todav&#237;a.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La historia avanza porque la gente observa las cosas con atenci&#243;n, pasa a&#241;os aprendiendo en qu&#233; fijarse y entonces ve algo que antes no era visible. Esa no es una descripci&#243;n rom&#225;ntica de las humanidades. Es una descripci&#243;n funcional de c&#243;mo crece realmente el conocimiento. La IA solo puede recombinar lo que ya le han dado. No puede leer un documento nuevo, reconocer una anomal&#237;a en el tejido de un textil ni discutir una interpretaci&#243;n recibida sobre la base de la evidencia. En el momento en que la normalizamos como sustituto de ese trabajo, no estamos haciendo la historia m&#225;s accesible. La estamos haciendo m&#225;s superficial, y vestir esa superficialidad con el respaldo de una instituci&#243;n hace que las personas que la observan no noten la diferencia.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La pr&#243;xima vez que ve&#225;is un v&#237;deo de historia cuidadosamente elaborado o le&#225;is un art&#237;culo bien documentado de alguien que ha pasado tiempo real con este material, ese trabajo representa a&#241;os de formaci&#243;n ling&#252;&#237;stica, horas de archivo y el tipo de atenci&#243;n sostenida al detalle que un prompt de cinco segundos no puede replicar. Merece vuestra atenci&#243;n precisamente porque no es f&#225;cil de producir. E instituciones como Madinat al-Zahra, que existen porque generaciones de acad&#233;micos y excavadores dedicaron sus vidas a recuperar un mundo perdido, le deben a esa tradici&#243;n algo mejor que un chatbot con turbante blanco.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Bab al-Mardum: Toledo's Oldest Mosque | Bab al-Mardum: la mezquita más antigua de Toledo]]></title><description><![CDATA[A Guided Tour of the Mosque of Cristo de la Luz | Visita guiada a la mezquita del Cristo de la Luz]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/bab-al-mardum-toledos-oldest-mosque</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/bab-al-mardum-toledos-oldest-mosque</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 23 Jun 2026 13:51:15 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Bj4J!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb459e932-6843-4a48-85fd-d70ba2437d10_4032x3024.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Bj4J!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb459e932-6843-4a48-85fd-d70ba2437d10_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Bj4J!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb459e932-6843-4a48-85fd-d70ba2437d10_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Bj4J!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb459e932-6843-4a48-85fd-d70ba2437d10_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Abstract/Resumen</strong></h1><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Built at the edge of tenth-century Toledo beside the gate that gave it its name, Bab al-Mardum preserved in miniature the full architectural vocabulary of Umayyad C&#243;rdoba. In this bilingual in-person tour, I walk through the mosque-church room by room, examining the interlacing dome system copied from al-Hakam II&#8217;s expansion of the Great Mosque, the aparejo toledano masonry technique that would define Toledan construction for centuries, and the Arabic calligraphy inscription in the Christian apse that reveals how Castilian patrons borrowed the prestige language of Andalus&#237; palace architecture long after the conquest. One of the oldest surviving mosques on the Iberian Peninsula, Bab al-Mardum is also one of the most eloquent witnesses to the layered world that Toledo&#8217;s Christian rulers inherited and consciously deployed.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>Video available now to paid subscribers!</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">&#8212;</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>Construida en el l&#237;mite de Toledo en el siglo X, junto a la puerta que le dio su nombre, Bab al-Mardum conserv&#243; en miniatura el vocabulario arquitect&#243;nico completo de la C&#243;rdoba omeya. En esta visita guiada biling&#252;e, recorro la mezquita-iglesia espacio por espacio, examinando el sistema de c&#250;pulas de arcos entrelazados copiado de la ampliaci&#243;n de al-Hakam II en la Gran Mezquita, la t&#233;cnica de aparejo toledano que definir&#237;a la construcci&#243;n toledana durante siglos, y la inscripci&#243;n de caligraf&#237;a &#225;rabe en el &#225;bside cristiano que revela c&#243;mo los mecenas castellanos tomaron prestado el lenguaje de prestigio de la arquitectura palatina andalus&#237; mucho despu&#233;s de la conquista. Una de las mezquitas m&#225;s antiguas que se conservan en la Pen&#237;nsula Ib&#233;rica, Bab al-Mardum es tambi&#233;n uno de los testimonios m&#225;s elocuentes del mundo estratificado que los gobernantes cristianos de Toledo heredaron y desplegaron conscientemente.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><strong>&#161;V&#237;deo disponible ahora para suscriptores de pago!</strong></p><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">This work takes time and travel. If Cruz y Creciente has been valuable to you, five dollars a month or forty a year makes it possible to keep doing it.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wq02!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbd8a202-828e-48d7-931f-4f54513cfa4f_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wq02!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbd8a202-828e-48d7-931f-4f54513cfa4f_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wq02!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbd8a202-828e-48d7-931f-4f54513cfa4f_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wq02!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbd8a202-828e-48d7-931f-4f54513cfa4f_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wq02!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcbd8a202-828e-48d7-931f-4f54513cfa4f_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wq02!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div>
      <p>
          <a href="/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/bab-al-mardum-toledos-oldest-mosque">
              Read more
          </a>
      </p>
   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Asabiyya and The Fake Taxi Line | Asabiyya y la Cola Falsa]]></title><description><![CDATA[What Ibn Khaldun and a taxi stand in Toledo taught me about the unfortunate decline of social cohesion in the West | Lo que Ibn Jald&#250;n y una parada de taxis en Toledo me ense&#241;aron.]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/asabiyya-and-the-fake-taxi-line-asabiyya</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/asabiyya-and-the-fake-taxi-line-asabiyya</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Mon, 22 Jun 2026 07:54:02 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N6-H!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf54d630-bd35-4719-aaba-3d1e13bdc217_369x410.webp" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Abstract/Resumen</strong></h1><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>At a train station in Toledo, a taxi queue became something more than an organizational problem. Ibn Khaldun, the fourteenth-century historian, had a concept for what happened there: asabiyya, the social cohesion that makes common life possible. When it weakens, institutions hollow out from within before they collapse from without. This short piece argues that this is precisely what we are watching today, from a taxi stand in Toledo to the corridors of power in Washington.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>&#8212;</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>En una estaci&#243;n de tren en Toledo, una cola de taxis se convirti&#243; en algo m&#225;s que un problema de organizaci&#243;n. Ibn Jald&#250;n, el historiador del siglo XIV, ten&#237;a un concepto para lo que ocurri&#243; all&#237;: la asabiyya, la cohesi&#243;n social que hace posible la vida en com&#250;n. Cuando se debilita, las instituciones se vac&#237;an por dentro antes de derrumbarse por fuera. Este ensayo breve argumenta que eso es precisamente lo que estamos viendo hoy, desde una cola de taxis en Toledo hasta los pasillos del poder en Washington.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>[La versi&#243;n en Espa&#241;ol se encuentra justo debajo del texto en ingl&#233;s.]</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Walter Evans.</strong></em></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em><strong>Written in Toledo, Spain on June 21-22, 2026.</strong></em></p><h1 style="text-align: center;">English Version &#127482;&#127480;</h1><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Asabiyya and The Fake Taxi Line</strong></h1><p style="text-align: justify;">Yesterday afternoon in Toledo I watched a woman invent a taxi queue from nothing. The station had a sign pointing to the correct line. She ignored it, planted herself somewhere else, fifteen other people got behind her, and when a driver rejected her for the correct line she simply declared her position legitimate and waited for the next taxi. A weird and small thing to witness. But I have been thinking about it all day, because it is not really about a taxi.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N6-H!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf54d630-bd35-4719-aaba-3d1e13bdc217_369x410.webp" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N6-H!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf54d630-bd35-4719-aaba-3d1e13bdc217_369x410.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N6-H!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf54d630-bd35-4719-aaba-3d1e13bdc217_369x410.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N6-H!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf54d630-bd35-4719-aaba-3d1e13bdc217_369x410.webp 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N6-H!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf54d630-bd35-4719-aaba-3d1e13bdc217_369x410.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N6-H!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf54d630-bd35-4719-aaba-3d1e13bdc217_369x410.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Ibn Khaldun, a fourteenth-century historian and the greatest social theorist the medieval world produced, had a concept for what I watched dissolving at that taxi stand. He called it asabiyya, a word that resists clean translation but points toward something like collective solidarity, the felt sense that one belongs to a common enterprise with other people and that the rules organizing that enterprise apply to oneself as much as to anyone else. For Ibn Khaldun, asabiyya was not a sentiment. It was the structural force that made states possible. When it was strong, institutions held, rules were followed, and the cooperation that sustains civilized life operated almost effortlessly. When it eroded, the outward forms of order remained standing for a time while the substance drained out of them, until one day the forms collapsed too.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WcV5!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1764caa-9b42-4da0-86f5-80c03c9a342c_2720x3725.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WcV5!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1764caa-9b42-4da0-86f5-80c03c9a342c_2720x3725.jpeg 424w, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1764caa-9b42-4da0-86f5-80c03c9a342c_2720x3725.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WcV5!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1764caa-9b42-4da0-86f5-80c03c9a342c_2720x3725.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: justify;">What I watched in Toledo was the substance draining. The woman at the taxi stand was not stupid. She was doing something more corrosive than stupidity: she had stopped believing that the common framework applied to her. Her time, her urgency, her situation were exceptional enough to justify inventing an alternative reality on the spot and defending it with genuine indignation when challenged. When a taxi driver arrived and pointed at me, an off-duty soldier who had advanced to the head of the fake line tried to guilt me for standing where the sign said to stand. He had followed the woman&#8217;s lead, and he defended the invented queue with the same conviction she had. Neither of them was behaving irrationally from inside their own heads. They had simply ceased to extend to the strangers around them the same interior life they extended to themselves. The taxi driver who stepped out of his car and adjudicated in my favor was, in Ibn Khaldun&#8217;s terms, the last institutional actor keeping the rules standing.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The point is not about taxi lines. The political scientist Herman Mark Schwartz, speaking recently in the New York Times about the trajectory of American power, observed that empires tend to die from suicide related to their own successes. Elites in a stable and prosperous society come to believe they no longer need the state, and so they hollow it out from within, termiting its foundations in order to pursue private advantage and status competition with other elites. The mechanism Schwartz describes is Ibn Khaldun&#8217;s mechanism. The scale is different. The structure is identical. When the people with the most power in a society stop believing the common framework applies to them, they do not merely opt out of a taxi queue. They defund the institutions that maintain the queue, they appoint people who do not believe in queues to run the queue authority, and they declare anyone who points to the sign a threat to their freedom.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lafw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bdbb255-be1b-4612-9eb9-a6a70fc1102a_1290x670.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lafw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bdbb255-be1b-4612-9eb9-a6a70fc1102a_1290x670.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lafw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bdbb255-be1b-4612-9eb9-a6a70fc1102a_1290x670.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2026/06/19/opinion/american-empire-trump.html">https://www.nytimes.com/2026/06/19/opinion/american-empire-trump.html</a></h6><p></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Ibn Khaldun believed this was a cycle rather than a straight line toward collapse. The asabiyya of one era gets depleted, a new group with stronger cohesion eventually replaces the exhausted one, and the process begins again. Whether that reading offers comfort depends on how long you are willing to think in centuries. What it does not offer is any guarantee that the transition is painless, or that the institutions built during a high-asabiyya period survive the transit intact. The woman at the taxi stand grew impatient after two minutes and ordered an Uber, talking loudly on her phone to a friend about how bad her experience waiting for a taxi had been. As we drove away, I looked back to see two more taxis pulling up to the real line, and the crowd that had gathered around the invented queue shuffling, without ceremony, to where the sign had been pointing all along. I am not sure that counts as a happy ending.</p><h1 style="text-align: center;">Versi&#243;n en Espa&#241;ol &#127466;&#127480;</h1><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Asabiyya y la Cola Falsa</strong></h1><p style="text-align: justify;">Ayer en Toledo vi a una mujer inventar una cola de taxis de la nada. La estaci&#243;n ten&#237;a un cartel que se&#241;alaba la cola correcta. Ella lo ignor&#243;, se plant&#243; en otro sitio, quince personas se pusieron detr&#225;s de ella, y cuando un taxista la rechaz&#243; en favor de la cola correcta, simplemente declar&#243; leg&#237;tima su posici&#243;n y esper&#243; al siguiente taxi. Una cosa extra&#241;a y peque&#241;a de presenciar. Pero le he estado dando vueltas todo el d&#237;a, porque en realidad no va de taxis.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N6-H!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf54d630-bd35-4719-aaba-3d1e13bdc217_369x410.webp" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N6-H!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf54d630-bd35-4719-aaba-3d1e13bdc217_369x410.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N6-H!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf54d630-bd35-4719-aaba-3d1e13bdc217_369x410.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!N6-H!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faf54d630-bd35-4719-aaba-3d1e13bdc217_369x410.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: justify;">Ibn Jald&#250;n, un historiador del siglo XIV y el mayor te&#243;rico social que produjo el mundo medieval, ten&#237;a un concepto para lo que vi desmoronarse en aquella parada de taxis. Lo llam&#243; asabiyya, una palabra que resiste la traducci&#243;n limpia pero que apunta a algo parecido a la solidaridad colectiva: la sensaci&#243;n de que uno pertenece a una empresa com&#250;n con otras personas y de que las reglas que organizan esa empresa se aplican a uno mismo tanto como a cualquier otro. Para Ibn Jald&#250;n, la asabiyya no era un sentimiento. Era la fuerza estructural que hac&#237;a posibles los estados. Cuando era fuerte, las instituciones se sosten&#237;an, las reglas se cumpl&#237;an, y la cooperaci&#243;n que sustenta la vida civilizada funcionaba casi sin esfuerzo. Cuando se erosionaba, las formas externas del orden permanec&#237;an en pie durante un tiempo mientras la sustancia se les escapaba por dentro, hasta que un d&#237;a las formas tambi&#233;n se derrumbaban.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WcV5!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa1764caa-9b42-4da0-86f5-80c03c9a342c_2720x3725.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WcV5!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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style="text-align: justify;">Lo que vi en Toledo fue la sustancia escap&#225;ndose. La mujer en la parada de taxis no era est&#250;pida. Estaba haciendo algo m&#225;s corrosivo que la estupidez: hab&#237;a dejado de creer que el marco com&#250;n le era aplicable. Su tiempo, su urgencia, su situaci&#243;n eran suficientemente excepcionales como para justificar la invenci&#243;n de una realidad alternativa en el acto y defenderla con indignaci&#243;n genuina cuando se la cuestionaba. Cuando lleg&#243; un taxista y me se&#241;al&#243; a m&#237;, un militar fuera de servicio a la cabeza de la cola falsa intent&#243; hacerme sentir culpable por estar donde el cartel indicaba. &#201;l hab&#237;a seguido el ejemplo de la mujer y defend&#237;a la cola inventada con la misma convicci&#243;n que ella. Ninguno de los dos se comportaba de manera irracional desde dentro de su propia cabeza. Simplemente hab&#237;an dejado de atribuir a los desconocidos que los rodeaban la misma vida interior que se atribu&#237;an a s&#237; mismos. El taxista que sali&#243; de su coche y fall&#243; a mi favor era, en t&#233;rminos de Ibn Jald&#250;n, uno de los &#250;ltimos actores institucionales que manten&#237;an las reglas en pie.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La cuesti&#243;n no va de colas de taxis. El cient&#237;fico pol&#237;tico Herman Mark Schwartz, hablando recientemente en el New York Times sobre la trayectoria del poder estadounidense, observ&#243; que los imperios tienden a morir por suicidio relacionado con sus propios &#233;xitos. Las &#233;lites de una sociedad estable y pr&#243;spera llegan a creer que ya no necesitan el estado, y por eso lo vac&#237;an desde dentro, carcomiendo sus cimientos para perseguir la ventaja privada y la competencia de estatus con otras &#233;lites. El mecanismo que describe Schwartz es el mecanismo de Ibn Jald&#250;n. La escala es distinta. La estructura es id&#233;ntica. Cuando las personas con m&#225;s poder en una sociedad dejan de creer que el marco com&#250;n les es aplicable, no se limitan a ignorar una cola de taxis. Desfinancian las instituciones que mantienen la cola, nombran a personas que no creen en las colas para dirigir la autoridad encargada de gestionarlas, y declaran que cualquiera que se&#241;ale el cartel es una amenaza para su libertad.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lafw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bdbb255-be1b-4612-9eb9-a6a70fc1102a_1290x670.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lafw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lafw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bdbb255-be1b-4612-9eb9-a6a70fc1102a_1290x670.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lafw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bdbb255-be1b-4612-9eb9-a6a70fc1102a_1290x670.jpeg" width="1290" height="670" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bdbb255-be1b-4612-9eb9-a6a70fc1102a_1290x670.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!lafw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bdbb255-be1b-4612-9eb9-a6a70fc1102a_1290x670.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2026/06/19/opinion/american-empire-trump.html">https://www.nytimes.com/2026/06/19/opinion/american-empire-trump.html</a></h6><p></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Ibn Jald&#250;n cre&#237;a que esto era un ciclo y no una l&#237;nea recta hacia el colapso. La asabiyya de una &#233;poca se agota, un nuevo grupo con mayor cohesi&#243;n acaba por reemplazar al exhausto, y el proceso vuelve a comenzar. Si esa lectura ofrece consuelo depende de cu&#225;nto tiempo uno est&#233; dispuesto a pensar en siglos. Lo que no ofrece es ninguna garant&#237;a de que la transici&#243;n sea indolora, ni de que las instituciones construidas durante un per&#237;odo de alta asabiyya sobrevivan al tr&#225;nsito intactas. La mujer de la parada de taxis perdi&#243; la paciencia a los dos minutos y pidi&#243; un Uber, hablando en voz alta por tel&#233;fono con una amiga sobre lo mala que hab&#237;a sido su experiencia esperando un taxi. Al alejarnos en el coche, mir&#233; atr&#225;s y vi dos taxis m&#225;s acerc&#225;ndose a la cola real, y la multitud que se hab&#237;a congregado en torno a la cola inventada desplaz&#225;ndose, sin ning&#250;n ceremonial, hacia donde el cartel hab&#237;a estado se&#241;alando todo el tiempo. No estoy seguro de que eso cuente como un final feliz.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[What a Medievalist Sees in the War on Iran | Lo que ve un medievalista en la guerra contra Irán]]></title><description><![CDATA[A historian of medieval power reads the war the headlines cannot quite explain. | Un historiador del poder medieval lee la guerra que los titulares no logran explicar del todo.]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/what-a-medievalist-sees-in-the-war</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/what-a-medievalist-sees-in-the-war</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 19 Jun 2026 00:34:23 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RZRw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F692da9f6-5e37-43c6-a62e-5c25c66ac11e_2048x1365.webp" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RZRw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F692da9f6-5e37-43c6-a62e-5c25c66ac11e_2048x1365.webp" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RZRw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F692da9f6-5e37-43c6-a62e-5c25c66ac11e_2048x1365.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RZRw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, 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style="text-align: center;">An oil storage facility west of Tehran hit by Israeli airstrikes on June 14, 2026.</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><h3 style="text-align: center;">Abstract/Resumen</h3><p><em>An occasional appendix to my medieval work, showing why history matters for understanding today. This is not a piece about medieval Iberia, and readers who come to Cross and Crescent for that should treat it as a departure. It is driven, though, by the same instinct that animates everything I write here. I am interested in the distance between the story a power tells about itself and the structure of power underneath that story, and I am interested in what gets lost when institutions with the means to explain the world to a mass audience decline to do the harder work of explanation. What follows is my synthesis and my reading of current events, offered as the perspective of a historian who studies how states use language and symbol to project sovereignty, not as the work of a credentialed specialist in Middle Eastern affairs. I have leaned heavily on the reporting of the New York Times throughout, and I have listed the relevant pieces at the end. The facts are theirs. The argument that connects them is mine. </em></p><p><em>Note that this article was written on June 19, 2026 and only has information on the war up until this point. </em></p><p><em>&#8212;</em></p><p><em>Un ap&#233;ndice ocasional a mi trabajo medieval, que muestra por qu&#233; la historia importa para comprender el presente. Este art&#237;culo no trata sobre la Iberia medieval, y los lectores que acuden a Cruz y Creciente en busca de eso deber&#237;an considerarlo una excepci&#243;n. Lo anima, sin embargo, el mismo instinto que gu&#237;a todo lo que escribo aqu&#237;. Me interesa la distancia entre el relato que un poder construye sobre s&#237; mismo y la estructura de poder que subyace a ese relato, y me interesa lo que se pierde cuando las instituciones con los medios para explicar el mundo a una audiencia masiva declinan realizar el trabajo m&#225;s exigente de la explicaci&#243;n. Lo que sigue es mi s&#237;ntesis y mi lectura de los acontecimientos actuales, ofrecida como la perspectiva de un historiador que estudia el modo en que los estados emplean el lenguaje y el s&#237;mbolo para proyectar soberan&#237;a, no como el trabajo de un especialista acreditado en asuntos de Oriente Medio. Me he apoyado extensamente en la cr&#243;nica del New York Times a lo largo de todo el texto, y he enumerado los art&#237;culos pertinentes al final. Los hechos son suyos. El argumento que los conecta es m&#237;o.</em></p><p><em>Nota: este art&#237;culo fue escrito el 19 de junio de 2026 y solo contiene informaci&#243;n sobre la guerra hasta esta fecha.</em></p><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>&#127466;&#127480; La versi&#243;n en espa&#241;ol se encuentra debajo de la versi&#243;n en ingl&#233;s.</strong></p><h1 style="text-align: center;">English Version &#127482;&#127480;</h1><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>What a Medievalist Sees in the War on Iran</strong></h1><h3 style="text-align: center;">The Aims, and Their Inversion</h3><p>The United States and Israel went to war against Iran in February of 2026 with two stated objectives. The first was regime change. The second was the elimination of Iran&#8217;s nuclear program and the threat that program was said to pose. By the standard of its own aims, the war has been close to a perfect failure, and the failure is not partial or ambiguous. It is the kind of failure that produces the opposite of the thing intended.</p><div class="twitter-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://x.com/WhiteHouse/status/2029923412269809980&quot;,&quot;full_text&quot;:&quot;\&quot;There will be no deal with Iran except UNCONDITIONAL SURRENDER!... IRAN WILL HAVE A GREAT FUTURE. 'MAKE IRAN GREAT AGAIN (MIGA!).'&#8221; - President Donald J. Trump &#127482;&#127480; &quot;,&quot;username&quot;:&quot;WhiteHouse&quot;,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;The White House&quot;,&quot;profile_image_url&quot;:&quot;https://pbs.substack.com/profile_images/2062605835256127489/atNMwHxg_normal.jpg&quot;,&quot;date&quot;:&quot;2026-03-06T14:13:50.000Z&quot;,&quot;photos&quot;:[{&quot;img_url&quot;:&quot;https://pbs.substack.com/media/HCu8bzOXkAAFgBS.jpg&quot;,&quot;link_url&quot;:&quot;https://t.co/H2HKkBVkww&quot;}],&quot;quoted_tweet&quot;:{},&quot;reply_count&quot;:14507,&quot;retweet_count&quot;:16964,&quot;like_count&quot;:58110,&quot;impression_count&quot;:2930743,&quot;expanded_url&quot;:null,&quot;video_url&quot;:null,&quot;video_preview_media_key&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true}" data-component-name="Twitter2ToDOM"></div><p>There has been regime change. The theocracy that governed Iran for more than four decades is gone, and the men who removed it did not put in its place the compliant successor they imagined. What emerged is what some experts have begun to call the Islamic Republic 3.0, a state that is less a clerical theocracy than a military government dominated by the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, who had ruled for thirty-five years, was assassinated on the first day of the war. This matters more than the headlines suggested at the time, and I will return to it, because Khamenei was the single figure who had for years maintained a religious prohibition on the actual construction of a nuclear weapon and who had worked consistently to avoid precisely the joint American and Israeli assault that finally came. The men who replaced him were never bound by that prohibition. They watched their predecessor die for his caution and concluded, reasonably enough on their own terms, that caution was what had gotten him killed.</p><p>The second aim has fared no better. A retired Israeli military intelligence officer who specializes in Iran put the matter as sharply as anyone has. He warned that a war fought to keep Iran from acquiring a nuclear weapon may turn out to be the war that pushed Iran across the threshold. Iran entered the conflict appearing weak and exposed. It has emerged with its security apparatus in firm control of the state, its nuclear knowledge intact, its centrifuges and scientific infrastructure preserved, and a demonstrated willingness to absorb a level of pain that the men who started the war plainly did not expect it to tolerate. The same officer pointed out something that ought to be dwelt on at length and has barely been mentioned. Before the war, Iran had offered the United States a better deal in Geneva than the one it is offering now. The bombing did not soften the Iranian position. It hardened it.</p><p>This is the first thing to hold steady in the mind. A great deal of what has followed is confusing, and the confusion is partly manufactured, but the underlying result is not confusing at all. The war achieved the reverse of both of its purposes.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">Why Iran Didn&#8217;t Break</h3><p>I want to take seriously, before going further, the strongest case for the war and for the relationship that produced it, because the argument deserves better than the caricature it usually receives.</p><p>From an Israeli vantage point, an Iranian nuclear weapon is not a strategic inconvenience but an existential question. A state whose officials have spoken openly of Israel&#8217;s elimination, that has armed and funded Hezbollah and Hamas and the Houthis as instruments of pressure on or near Israel&#8217;s borders, and that has invested decades in enrichment capacity, looks from Tel Aviv like a threat that no responsible Israeli government could leave unaddressed. The trauma of recent years, and the specific horror that reshaped Israeli strategic thinking (October 7th, 2023), gave that perception a force that outsiders underestimate. The genuine danger of nuclear proliferation in an unstable region is not a fiction invented to justify aggression. It is a real problem, and the people who lose sleep over it are not all cynics.</p><p>The difficulty is that the Iranian calculation is also rational, and the two rationalities do not meet. Consider the view from inside the Iranian regime and look at the last quarter century of American conduct. Libya surrendered its weapons program in 2003, and within eight years its leader was dead with Western air power overhead. Iraq possessed no weapons of mass destruction and was invaded regardless. North Korea tested a device and has been left substantially alone ever since. The lesson an Iranian strategist draws from this sequence is not subtle. The states that gave up the capability were destroyed. The state that acquired it survived. To a government that understands its own security in these terms, a nuclear weapon is not an act of aggression but an insurance policy, the one guarantee that the experience of February 2025 will not be repeated.</p><p>Layered over this strategic logic is something older and harder to negotiate with, and here my training as a historian is of more use than any briefing paper. The Islamic Republic was founded on a narrative of resistance. Opposition to the United States is not a policy of that state but a constitutive principle of it, woven into its self-understanding from 1979 onward. This is why the spectacle that Washington seemed to expect, a sequence in which America bombs Iran for two days and Iran then appears at a table to sign away its program, was never plausible. A regime built on the memory of standing against the great powers cannot present capitulation under fire to its own people as anything other than humiliation, and humiliation is the one thing such a regime cannot survive. The country fought Iraq for eight years and buried hundreds of thousands of its young men rather than accept terms it regarded as dishonoring. That is the historical memory the new men in Tehran carry into every negotiation. To imagine that a few days of airstrikes and a sequence of social media threats would override it is to misread, at the most basic level, what kind of state one is dealing with.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9Vhx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe69422d2-e40f-4ba5-9319-b3cfe2b3b54c_407x480.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9Vhx!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe69422d2-e40f-4ba5-9319-b3cfe2b3b54c_407x480.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9Vhx!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe69422d2-e40f-4ba5-9319-b3cfe2b3b54c_407x480.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9Vhx!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe69422d2-e40f-4ba5-9319-b3cfe2b3b54c_407x480.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9Vhx!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe69422d2-e40f-4ba5-9319-b3cfe2b3b54c_407x480.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9Vhx!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe69422d2-e40f-4ba5-9319-b3cfe2b3b54c_407x480.jpeg" width="407" height="480" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe69422d2-e40f-4ba5-9319-b3cfe2b3b54c_407x480.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9Vhx!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe69422d2-e40f-4ba5-9319-b3cfe2b3b54c_407x480.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9Vhx!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe69422d2-e40f-4ba5-9319-b3cfe2b3b54c_407x480.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9Vhx!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe69422d2-e40f-4ba5-9319-b3cfe2b3b54c_407x480.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;"><span>Iranian volunteer children in front line of the war against Iraq (1980-1988).</span></h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p>So the war did not merely fail to break Iran. It handed the hardest faction in the country the proof it had always wanted, that the only true security lay in a capability the others could not take away, and it removed the one ruler whose authority had held that conclusion in check.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">The Shape of the Surrender</h3><p>On the seventeenth of June, a senior American official read the text of the Islamabad Memorandum of Understanding to reporters on a conference call. The document, mediated by Pakistan and Qatar and signed under the new Iranian leadership, is short, and its structure tells the whole story to anyone willing to read it slowly. Nearly every concession in it flows in one direction, and it flows immediately. Nearly every American objective is deferred to a future negotiation that the administration&#8217;s own officials quietly concede may never conclude.</p><p>Consider what Iran receives upon signing. The United States begins at once to remove its naval blockade and commits to ending it within thirty days. It issues Treasury waivers for the export of Iranian crude oil and for the banking, insurance, and transport services that make such export possible. It undertakes to make available the frozen Iranian assets, a sum of roughly twenty-four billion dollars, and the document specifies that those funds may be released to any beneficiary designated by Iran&#8217;s central bank, a clause whose breadth could be read to include entities on terrorism and sanctions lists. It commits, with regional partners, to a reconstruction and development plan of at least three hundred billion dollars. Iran&#8217;s oil flows overwhelmingly to China, which means that the moment the blockade lifts, revenue begins moving again and the immediate economic crisis that was the regime&#8217;s principal vulnerability begins to ease.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp" width="1456" height="971" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Now consider what the United States receives. Iran offers free passage through the Strait of Hormuz, but only for sixty days, after which it may begin charging fees it never imposed before the war, which would breach the very standard of returning commerce to prewar conditions that the Secretary of State had laid down. On the nuclear question, the core cause of the entire conflict, there is a single paragraph, and it is vague at every point of contention. Iran reaffirms that it will not build a weapon, a promise it first made in 1970 when it ratified the Non-Proliferation Treaty and repeated in 2015. The word the text uses is reaffirms, which is to say that this commitment is not new and costs Tehran nothing. The stockpile of enriched uranium, roughly eleven tons of it, including a quantity enriched to just short of weapons grade, is to be diluted on site rather than shipped out of the country. Iran keeps physical possession of the material. It keeps its advanced centrifuges. It keeps the scientific knowledge that produced the program in the first place. Everything substantive is left to a sixty-day follow-on negotiation.</p><p>That timeline is the tell. American officials acknowledge, off the record, that a genuine nuclear agreement is unlikely to be reachable in sixty days, particularly when measured against the years that previous negotiations with Iran consumed. The function of the sixty-day window is not diplomatic. It is electoral. It places the prospect of a finished deal in front of the American midterm elections in November, at a moment when the president&#8217;s domestic standing is sliding and the relief of falling energy prices would be politically valuable. The structure of the agreement makes most sense when read not as a settlement but as a device for buying time on a domestic political clock.</p><p>The hawks understood this immediately, and it is worth giving their objection its due, because it converges from the opposite direction on the same conclusion I am drawing. A senior figure at the Foundation for Defense of Democracies observed that the United States had traded away its most durable economic lever before the difficult part of the negotiation had even begun. He is right. Once the blockade is gone and the assets are unfrozen and the oil is flowing to China, the incentive that was supposed to compel Iranian concessions has already been spent. The Iranians have every reason to let the sixty days stretch into months and the months into years, collecting the benefits of the memorandum while conceding nothing further. An Iran specialist at Brookings described the likely outcome with precision. A condition of no war and no peace, she said, is comfortable for Iran, because such a limbo only increases the pressure on the American president to take whatever deal will keep the strait open and the energy markets calm.</p><p>And here the gravest problem comes into view, one the document cannot answer. Even if Iran dilutes its stockpile rather than shipping it abroad, what prevents it from doing again what it did before? After 2015, under the Obama agreement, Iran sent the overwhelming majority of its stockpile to Russia. It gave the material up. Within a decade it had rebuilt to eleven tons. This time it does not even give the material up. It keeps it, dilutes it under inspection, retains the centrifuges and the expertise, and waits. The facilities that were bombed can be rebuilt. The knowledge cannot be unlearned. There is no structural barrier to Iran standing again at the nuclear threshold within ten years, and this time without a Khamenei to forbid the final step. The memorandum is a bandage. The wound is the program, and the program is still there.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">The President and the Clock</h3><p>The conduct of the war&#8217;s American author, Donald Trump, has been, by any historical standard, extraordinary, and not in a way that flatters him. In the ordinary practice of statecraft, commanders do not announce future operations, for the elementary reason that doing so warns the adversary and endangers the mission. The American commander in chief announced his strikes in advance on social media, threatened that Iran would be hit very hard on a given night, promised on a second consecutive day that the blows would be strong and clear, and then, within hours, cancelled the strikes he had just proclaimed. Pete Hegseth, his Defense Secretary, a man who had previously rebuked reporters for asking about future operations, stood before the press and forecast bombing raids, and then watched the president call them off.</p><p>We have gotten stuck in a pattern that runs in cycles of a day or two, and it is not the signature of a strategy. It is the signature of improvisation. A man ran for office on the promise that he would end wars rather than start them, sold that promise to a base that took it seriously, and then conducted exactly the kind of foreign military entanglement he had condemned, while reversing his own threats fast enough to give whiplash to anyone trying to follow the policy. There may be no coherent policy to follow. What the public has been shown looks like a president responding in real time to whoever spoke to him last, with the contradictions exposed in public because the medium of his thinking is a social media feed rather than a deliberative process behind closed doors.</p><p>The pressure that disciplines all of this is the price of gasoline. The history here is unambiguous, and American voters are entirely consistent about it. They removed the previous president, Joe Biden, in part over the cost of fuel and the broader cost of living, and the strait that Iran has effectively closed carries something close to a fifth of the world&#8217;s oil. With prices now far above where they stood when the cost of living was a winning argument against the last administration, the man who made that argument is impaled on it. His two goals are at war with one another. He cannot pressure Iran militarily and lower the price at the pump at the same time, because the strait reopens only when Iran decides it has been given reason enough to reopen it, and giving Iran that reason means handing Tehran something real. The memorandum is the shape that contradiction takes. It eases the price of energy now, before November, and defers the strategic reckoning to a date the calendar of an election does not care about.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!E69G!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6ffe08f9-777c-46a4-8ff1-ed381aef427d_1726x1102.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!E69G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6ffe08f9-777c-46a4-8ff1-ed381aef427d_1726x1102.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!E69G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6ffe08f9-777c-46a4-8ff1-ed381aef427d_1726x1102.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!E69G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6ffe08f9-777c-46a4-8ff1-ed381aef427d_1726x1102.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!E69G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6ffe08f9-777c-46a4-8ff1-ed381aef427d_1726x1102.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!E69G!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6ffe08f9-777c-46a4-8ff1-ed381aef427d_1726x1102.png" width="1456" height="930" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6ffe08f9-777c-46a4-8ff1-ed381aef427d_1726x1102.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!E69G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6ffe08f9-777c-46a4-8ff1-ed381aef427d_1726x1102.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!E69G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6ffe08f9-777c-46a4-8ff1-ed381aef427d_1726x1102.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!E69G!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6ffe08f9-777c-46a4-8ff1-ed381aef427d_1726x1102.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Gas Prices in the USA according to the New York Times. Updated June 18, 2026 at 7:40 a.m. E.T. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2026/business/energy-environment/gas-prices-map-iran-war-oil.html</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><h3 style="text-align: center;">The Machine and the Money</h3><p>There is a dimension to the president&#8217;s social media conduct that deserves more scrutiny than it has received, and it concerns the strange relationship between his words and the financial markets.</p><p>A large share of modern trading runs through automated systems that read incoming text, including presidential posts, and execute orders within milliseconds, faster than any human can finish a sentence. When the president posts language associated with a deal or with de-escalation, some of these systems move oil and equities and currencies before any analyst has read the words. The market appears to believe him. What is happening is closer to pattern recognition by machines, and the more sophisticated human investors, who concluded long ago that his statements are noise, sell into the automated bounce and profit from the gap between the speed of the algorithm and the judgment it lacks.</p><p>This raises two questions that the political conversation has mostly avoided. The first concerns the suspicious regularity with which markets move around announcements that a small circle knew in advance. When a president announces strikes, the market moves, and when he cancels them, it moves back, a person with foreknowledge of both announcements can profit twice. A single occurrence might be coincidence. A repeating cycle that moves prices in predictable directions begins to look like something else, and the prediction markets that wager on the timing of such events have shown anomalous patterns that no regulator with real enforcement power has seriously investigated, in part because that regulator answers to the administration in question.</p><p>The second question is larger and more permanent. The architecture of these markets, the machines that now translate a president&#8217;s mood into the price of fuel for ordinary people, was built by private firms optimizing for their own profit, under regulatory frameworks written for a world of human traders making decisions over hours. No voter was ever asked whether this was an acceptable way to run the financial nervous system of the economy. It accumulated through a series of individually legal decisions into a systemic reality that nobody chose and most people do not understand. The people most exposed to the volatility, the ordinary savers whose retirement accounts live in the market this architecture shapes, are precisely the people with the least ability to influence it or to opt out. The war on Iran has made this normally invisible machinery briefly visible, because the connection between a post and a gas price is concrete enough to be felt. Whether that visibility produces any correction is doubtful, on the historical evidence.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">The Empty Chairs</h3><p>A deep question that explains a great deal of the incompetence on display, is whether the United States simply lacks the expertise to understand a state like Iran. The answer is that the expertise exists and was not in the room.</p><p>The career ranks of the State Department, the intelligence agencies, and the Defense Department contain genuinely world-class knowledge of Iran, of Shia political theology, of the internal mechanics of the Revolutionary Guards. People spend decades acquiring it. The Farsi and Arabic speakers with operational experience cannot be manufactured quickly. The administration that conducted this war had spent years treating that institutional expertise as an enemy to be circumvented rather than a resource to be consulted, and a sweeping reduction of the federal workforce cut deep into exactly the mid-level professionals who carry the institutional memory. When the people who would tell a president an uncomfortable truth are gone or sidelined, what remains are the people who tell him what he wishes to hear.</p><p>The leadership compounds the problem. The men placed at the head of the relevant institutions are, by the standards of any previous administration of either party, conspicuously unqualified for the work. One leads an intelligence community after a career built largely on promoting theories about that community&#8217;s disloyalty. One runs the Defense Department after a career as a television presenter, and his conduct during the war, forecasting strikes to traveling reporters with the cadence of a broadcast segment, reflected the profession he actually came from rather than the one he now holds. The negotiations themselves were handed to a real estate financier and the president&#8217;s son-in-law, men whose prior diplomatic achievement involved Arab states with strong economic incentives and no revolutionary ideology built around resistance to American power, an achievement that does not transfer to Tehran. There is no evidence that any of them brought a serious immersion in Iranian history to a negotiation that turned entirely on it.</p><p>The result is a feedback loop in which the president&#8217;s instincts are validated rather than tested. He understood the confrontation through the framework of a business negotiation, in which deadlines are pressure and the other party eventually folds because the economics demand it, and the people around him found evidence for that framework rather than presenting the historical record that contradicts it. The closest parallel is not flattering. Lyndon Baines Johnson had access to some of the finest strategic minds of his generation on the question of Vietnam, men who told him privately that the war could not be won, and the structural difficulty of telling a powerful man that his core assumptions are wrong produced one of the great catastrophes of American foreign policy. The mechanism was not stupidity. It was the way power insulates itself from the knowledge it most needs.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!duRC!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcdc5b692-18fd-41b9-bee0-92d8e55a17b9_952x1458.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!duRC!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcdc5b692-18fd-41b9-bee0-92d8e55a17b9_952x1458.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!duRC!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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style="text-align: center;">https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2026/us/politics/trump-cabinet-meetings.html</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p>This leads to a broader question, which is genuinely ancient. Why are countries governed by the charming and the ambitious rather than by those who have spent their lives studying how states succeed and fail? Plato built his political philosophy around this exact complaint, watching Athenian democracy and concluding that popular systems select for the persuasive over the wise. The reasons endure. Election rewards a skill set, the raising of money, the performance before a camera, the compression of difficulty into a slogan, that has almost nothing to do with the work of governing. Money in particular pulls the selection toward those who come from business or are indebted to it, which is why commercial backgrounds are so heavily overrepresented relative to their actual usefulness. And expertise itself reads, in a long and powerful American tradition, as the pretension of an educated class that looks down on ordinary people, a charge that is often more damaging at the ballot box than demonstrable incompetence. The professor who actually understands Iran would struggle to survive a primary, and many who could govern well have watched what politics does to serious people and declined to enter it. The country that inherited the twentieth century, with its great universities and its dominant technology, is not short of brainpower. It is structured so that the brainpower rarely reaches the chair where the decisions are made.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">The Israel Question</h3><p>We arrive at the center of the matter, the question that everything else circles, which is why the United States would spend its credibility, its economic stability, and its president&#8217;s domestic standing on a war driven by the strategic interests of another state, Israel.</p><p>Begin with the engine of the war, because the reporting on this point has been clearer than the political conversation admits. The Israeli prime minister visited Washington twice in close succession, and the escalation followed. Within the administration, as the reporting has indicated, the appetite for military action sat with the president and his Defense Secretary while others, including the vice president, harbored reservations, which means that the institutional brakes that might once have slowed such a decision were bypassed in favor of direct access at the very top. There has been reporting of Israeli intelligence monitoring the American negotiating channel with Iran, which, if accurate, describes something that is not an alliance in any traditional sense but a junior partner running operations against its patron in order to constrain the patron&#8217;s freedom of action and to time disruptions to moments of diplomatic progress.</p><p>The historical novelty here is worth stating plainly. For the first time, American and Israeli forces struck together as open partners. Previous administrations were careful to maintain a firewall. After the attacks of 2001, the United States made clear that Israeli participation in its campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan would be counterproductive, because the image of Israeli aircraft over Muslim lands would fracture the Arab cooperation those campaigns required. That firewall is now gone, and the consequences for how the United States is perceived across the Muslim world, in the very countries whose basing and intelligence Washington depends on, are serious and were plainly not calculated in advance. The memorandum itself contains an astonishing illustration of how little control the relationship now affords. The language on Lebanon amounts to an American rejection of Israeli concerns about Hezbollah, and yet Israel has already signaled that it does not consider itself bound by it and has continued striking southern Lebanon even as the deal was finalized. Washington signed a paragraph that Israel says it intends to ignore.</p><p>So why does the United States pay this price? The honest answer requires several factors that the conversation usually treats apart, but that operate together as a system.</p><p>The strategic case is largely a Cold War inheritance that has outlived the world it was made for. Israel was once valued as a reliable democratic ally against Soviet influence, a forward intelligence platform, and a proving ground for American military technology, and in the 1960s and 1970s that logic had real force even as it required ignoring the Palestinian question entirely. The post-Cold War version recast Israel as a partner against Iranian regional ambition, which is precisely the logic that has now produced an emboldened Iran rather than a contained one. The strategic rationale, in other words, has been eroding for years and has just been dealt a heavy blow by its own application.</p><p>What sustains the relationship beyond its strategic logic is, first, a domestic political architecture of remarkable durability. Decades of organized advocacy have made support for Israel the path of least resistance for any American politician who wants campaign funding, favorable coverage, and insulation from the charge of antisemitism, and that architecture now functions independently of whether the underlying relationship serves American interests, because it was built to serve the relationship rather than to evaluate it. Second, the president&#8217;s political coalition rests heavily on an evangelical Christian base a significant portion of which holds eschatological beliefs in which Jewish control of the biblical land is a precondition for the return of Christ. For this constituency, support for Israeli territorial maximalism is not a strategic judgment open to revision but a theological commitment immune to strategic argument. A president who depends on these voters cannot recalibrate the relationship without a domestic cost that no amount of international cost will outweigh in his calculations. The relationship has, in this sense, the character of a patron and client in which the client exercises far more autonomous agency than the patron, shaping American policy rather than receiving it, which makes it an unusual dependency that runs powerfully in both directions.</p><p>Then there is the moral question, which cannot be set aside even though it is the hardest to discuss with precision. The case for a Jewish homeland after the catastrophe of European antisemitism was, and remains, a serious moral argument. Where it becomes complicated is in the distance between that justification and the specific form the state took, because the founding of Israel involved the displacement of roughly seven hundred thousand Palestinians in 1947 and 1948, a fact established not by the state&#8217;s enemies but by Israeli historians working in Israeli military archives, the most prominent of whom documented the systematic character of the expulsions. The argument that the destruction of European Jewry justified the dispossession of a population that had no part in that destruction is one that serious historians and philosophers have contested for decades without reaching agreement, and it sits at the unhealed center of why this conflict has resisted every ordinary instrument of diplomacy. As for the present, the International Court of Justice found in early 2024 that there was a plausible case that Israel&#8217;s conduct in Gaza fell under the Genocide Convention and issued provisional measures accordingly, on the basis of evidence of systematic destruction of civilian infrastructure and statements by officials that met the legal threshold for genocidal intent.</p><p>Whether the final determination reaches the standard required for a finding of genocide is a question the courts will deliberate for years. What is not seriously in dispute is that the scale of civilian death, the destruction of an entire territory&#8217;s infrastructure, and the displacement of nearly its whole population constitute a catastrophe that has permanently altered how much of the world, and a growing share of Americans, understands the relationship. While lacking public healthcare and universal access to a university education, many Americans increasingly see Israel as a leech sucking away their taxpayer dollars for war rather than an as useful ally. Whatever one makes of that description, the shift in perception it describes is real and is documented, particularly among the young, and it represents the first serious structural challenge in fifty years to the architecture that has held the relationship in place.</p><p>That inversion became visible in dramatic terms today on June 19, 2026, when Vice President JD Vance delivered what amounted to a public warning to the Israeli government, telling reporters that if he were sitting in the Israeli cabinet, he &#8220;might not be attacking the only powerful ally&#8221; Israel had left in the world. The remark was directed specifically at Israeli criticism of the preliminary Iran deal and at Israel&#8217;s continued strikes on southern Lebanon despite American objections. Whatever its ultimate effect, the statement represented something that had no clear precedent in the modern history of the relationship: a sitting American vice president publicly threatening the withdrawal of patronage in the language of an ultimatum rather than a diplomatic note. Whether this marks a genuine recalibration or a momentary expression of frustration, it revealed that the asymmetry the preceding paragraphs described, the client constraining the patron rather than the reverse, had become visible enough to require public acknowledgment at the highest level of the American government.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp" width="1456" height="970" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>The United States gains from this relationship real intelligence and technological cooperation, and it gains the domestic political ease of maintaining what is difficult to abandon. Whether those gains can be weighed against the costs catalogued across this essay, the credibility, the economy, the complicity, the fracturing at home, is the question the country has so far refused to ask itself honestly.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">The Patient Creditor</h3><p>If the United States is the great loser of this episode, the great winner is not Iran, which has survived and gained leverage but remains a damaged and impoverished state under the ceiling of an Israeli nuclear arsenal. The winner is China, and the case is strong across every dimension at once.</p><p>Iranian oil flows overwhelmingly to China, so the lifting of the blockade and the relief of sanctions deliver cheap, discounted energy directly into the Chinese economy, normalized at scale with the banking and insurance infrastructure that grey-market purchasing lacked. China secured this without firing a shot, without spending diplomatic capital, and without conceding anything to anyone. Beneath that immediate gain lies a deeper one. China manufactures the overwhelming majority of the world&#8217;s solar capacity and dominates the battery supply chain, having wagered that the coming century runs on renewable energy rather than hydrocarbons. The United States has just spent months fighting a war to control a strait that matters chiefly because the world still runs on oil, a twentieth-century asset, while China simultaneously secures cheap oil from Iran and builds the system that will replace it. That is not a contradiction. It is a hedge that leaves Beijing advantaged under nearly any future.</p><p>The credibility damage compounds the energy gain. The Gulf states that spent decades building their security on the assumption of American reliability watched the United States destabilize regional energy markets, strike a water facility that may constitute a war crime under international law, announce and cancel operations within hours on a social media feed, and sign a memorandum its own officials concede is insufficient. Those states have been quietly deepening their relationships with Beijing, because they no longer regard American guarantees as dependable. European allies, already strained, watched the same performance. The institutions that made American primacy function, the alliances and the financial order, depend on a predictability that the conduct of this war has visibly undermined, and predictability, once lost, is the hardest thing in statecraft to rebuild.</p><p>The staging of the American president&#8217;s recent visit to Beijing captured the new arithmetic with a clarity that no communiqu&#233; could. He came needing relief from the economic pressure his own trade conflict had created, and the choreography reflected that need, down to the small and revealing moment in the garden, the question of whether other leaders are granted the same access, the posture of a man seeking to be told he is special. A genuinely hegemonic power does not ask such questions. Chinese diplomatic theater at that level is never accidental, and every government watching understood what it was being shown.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FbhN!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2f436ff-11ac-483f-a54b-d6be9e6bfa8d_2048x1365.webp" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FbhN!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2f436ff-11ac-483f-a54b-d6be9e6bfa8d_2048x1365.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FbhN!, 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y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>American primacy was always going to face a serious challenge from Chinese capacity over the course of this century. What the war on Iran may have done is accelerate that transition by years, by demonstrating in concrete and highly visible terms that American power is neither as reliable nor as competently wielded as the order built after 1945 assumed. Middle powers recalibrate on demonstrated behavior, not on stated commitments, and the demonstrated behavior of 2026 gives every one of them reason to hedge toward Beijing.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">The Accounting</h3><p>I&#8217;m going to set the ledger out plainly, because the plainness is the point.</p><p>The United States sacrificed a measure of its standing as the world&#8217;s ordering power. It sacrificed a measure of its economic stability, in the price of energy and in the broader disruption that a closed strait sends through the markets for fuel and fertilizer and metals. It sacrificed, at home, the credibility of a president who had promised peace and delivered a war he could neither win nor cleanly end. And it spent all of this, on the most charitable reading of its own aims, to protect another state from an Iranian nuclear weapon.</p><p>The cruelty of the accounting is that it may not have purchased even that. Iran kept its knowledge, its centrifuges, and its stockpile. The war that was meant to foreclose the bomb produced the conditions, the emboldened hard-line government, the removed restraint, the proof that only a weapon guarantees survival, that make the bomb more likely over the coming decade rather than less. The most durable lever, the economic pressure, has been traded away before the hard bargaining began. The hardest questions have been deferred to a sixty-day window that exists for the sake of a congressional election in November. The strait will reopen, the oil will flow to China, the assets will unfreeze, and in ten years a richer and more secure Iran may stand again where it stood before, this time without anyone in Tehran forbidding the final step.</p><p>That is the bandage. The wound is what the bandage covers, and the bandage was applied for the sake of a calendar.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">A Note from the Present</h3><p>I began by saying this was an appendix, and I want to close by explaining why a historian of medieval Iberia would write it at all, because the connection is not incidental to my work but central to it.</p><p>My subject is the way power dresses itself. The Castilian monarchy I study took the visual and epigraphic language of the Muslims it had defeated and wore it as a costume of sovereignty, projecting through borrowed prestige an authority that the bare facts of conquest could not supply on their own. The discipline of reading that costume, of asking what the image claims and what the structure underneath it actually was, is the same discipline that lets a person read a memorandum and see, beneath the language of a deal, the shape of a surrender, or read a social media post and see, beneath the announcement of strength, the rhythm of improvisation, or read a staged moment in a garden and see, beneath the ceremony, the new distribution of power.</p><p>The reporters whose work I have relied on did their jobs well, and I am in their debt. But the conventions of their profession require them to quote officials, to cite analysts, and to stop short of assembling those pieces into the conclusion the pieces support, leaving that assembly to a reader who usually lacks the time and the frame to perform it. What I have tried to do here is the assembly. It is my reading, and I hold it loosely enough to be corrected by events. There is much that will happen in the near future that will render some parts of this article irrelevant since hindsight is twenty-twenty. But the pattern seems to me clear, and the responsibility of anyone who works with evidence, whether the evidence is a thirteenth-century ceiling or a twenty-first-century treaty, is to say what the pattern shows rather than what is comfortable to say.</p><p>The country that inherited the twentieth century has spent the better part of this year demonstrating that it no longer governs itself with the competence that inheritance assumed. Whether it corrects course before the costs become irreversible is the open question, and nothing in the record I have laid out here suggests, on the present trajectory, that the answer is yes.</p><p>Time will tell.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">Sources</h3><p>The factual basis for this essay draws on the following reporting from the New York Times, June 2026: Ashley Cai, &#8220;Trump Is the Only Person Who Can Save America, According to His Cabinet&#8221; (27 May); David E. Sanger, &#8220;U.S. and Iran Zero In on Four Nuclear Issues in Talks&#8221; (9 June); Christoph Koettl and Christiaan Triebert, &#8220;Analysis of Satellite Image and Videos Suggest Precision U.S. Strikes on Iranian Water Facility&#8221; (10 June); Eric Schmitt, &#8220;Trump and Hegseth Broadcast U.S. Military Strikes Before They Happen&#8221; (11 June); Steven Erlanger, &#8220;With a Deal Seemingly Close, the U.S. Faces an Iran More Willing to Withstand Pressure&#8221; (13 June); the paper&#8217;s live coverage, &#8220;Mediator Says U.S.-Iran Peace Deal Could be Finalized Within 24 Hours&#8221; (13 June); the annotated text of the Islamabad Memorandum of Understanding, &#8220;A Look at the Text of the Agreement Between the United States and Iran,&#8221; with analysis by David E. Sanger, Michael Crowley, Anton Troianovski, and Luke Broadwater (17 June); Matthew Bloch, Steven Rich, and Emmett Lindner, &#8220;How High Are Gas Prices Where You Live?&#8221; (18 June); and Erica L. Green, Max Bearak, Jonathan Swan, and Rebecca F. Elliott, &#8220;Vance Issues Blunt Warning to Israel as He Defends Trump&#8217;s Iran Deal&#8221; (19 June). The historical material on the Nakba reflects the archival research of Benny Morris in his book <em>The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited</em>; the legal characterization of the Gaza proceedings reflects the International Court of Justice&#8217;s provisional-measures order of January 2024.</p><p>The interpretation throughout is my own.</p><h1 style="text-align: center;">Versi&#243;n en Espa&#241;ol &#127466;&#127480;</h1><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Lo que ve un medievalista en la guerra contra Ir&#225;n</strong></h1><h3 style="text-align: center;">Los objetivos, y su inversi&#243;n</h3><p>Los Estados Unidos e Israel fueron a la guerra contra Ir&#225;n en febrero de 2026 con dos objetivos declarados. El primero era el cambio de r&#233;gimen. El segundo era la eliminaci&#243;n del programa nuclear iran&#237; y de la amenaza que se dec&#237;a que representaba. Medida por el rasero de sus propios objetivos, la guerra ha sido un fracaso casi perfecto, y ese fracaso no es parcial ni ambiguo. Es el tipo de fracaso que produce lo contrario de lo que se pretend&#237;a.</p><div class="twitter-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://x.com/WhiteHouse/status/2029923412269809980&quot;,&quot;full_text&quot;:&quot;\&quot;There will be no deal with Iran except UNCONDITIONAL SURRENDER!... IRAN WILL HAVE A GREAT FUTURE. 'MAKE IRAN GREAT AGAIN (MIGA!).'&#8221; - President Donald J. Trump &#127482;&#127480; &quot;,&quot;username&quot;:&quot;WhiteHouse&quot;,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;The White House&quot;,&quot;profile_image_url&quot;:&quot;https://pbs.substack.com/profile_images/2062605835256127489/atNMwHxg_normal.jpg&quot;,&quot;date&quot;:&quot;2026-03-06T14:13:50.000Z&quot;,&quot;photos&quot;:[{&quot;img_url&quot;:&quot;https://pbs.substack.com/media/HCu8bzOXkAAFgBS.jpg&quot;,&quot;link_url&quot;:&quot;https://t.co/H2HKkBVkww&quot;}],&quot;quoted_tweet&quot;:{},&quot;reply_count&quot;:14507,&quot;retweet_count&quot;:16964,&quot;like_count&quot;:58110,&quot;impression_count&quot;:2930743,&quot;expanded_url&quot;:null,&quot;video_url&quot;:null,&quot;video_preview_media_key&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true}" data-component-name="Twitter2ToDOM"></div><p>Ha habido un cambio de r&#233;gimen. La teocracia que gobern&#243; Ir&#225;n durante m&#225;s de cuatro d&#233;cadas ha desaparecido, y los hombres que la derrocaron no instalaron en su lugar el sucesor d&#243;cil que imaginaban. Lo que emergi&#243; es lo que algunos expertos han comenzado a llamar la Rep&#250;blica Isl&#225;mica 3.0, un estado que es menos una teocracia clerical que un gobierno militar dominado por el Cuerpo de la Guardia Revolucionaria Isl&#225;mica. El ayatol&#225; Al&#237; Jamenei, que hab&#237;a gobernado durante treinta y cinco a&#241;os, fue asesinado el primer d&#237;a de la guerra. Esto tiene m&#225;s importancia de la que los titulares sugirieron en su momento, y volver&#233; sobre ello, porque Jamenei era la &#250;nica figura que durante a&#241;os hab&#237;a mantenido una prohibici&#243;n religiosa sobre la construcci&#243;n efectiva de un arma nuclear y que hab&#237;a trabajado de manera constante para evitar precisamente el ataque conjunto estadounidense e israel&#237; que finalmente lleg&#243;. Los hombres que lo sustituyeron nunca estuvieron vinculados por esa prohibici&#243;n. Vieron morir a su predecesor por su cautela y concluyeron, con suficiente l&#243;gica desde sus propios par&#225;metros, que la cautela era lo que le hab&#237;a costado la vida.</p><p>El segundo objetivo no ha corrido mejor suerte. Un oficial retirado de inteligencia militar israel&#237; especializado en Ir&#225;n formul&#243; el asunto con tanta agudeza como cualquiera. Advirti&#243; que una guerra librada para impedir que Ir&#225;n adquiriera un arma nuclear podr&#237;a resultar ser la guerra que empuj&#243; a Ir&#225;n a cruzar el umbral. Ir&#225;n entr&#243; en el conflicto pareciendo d&#233;bil y expuesto. Ha salido de &#233;l con su aparato de seguridad firmemente al mando del estado, su conocimiento nuclear intacto, sus centrifugadoras e infraestructura cient&#237;fica preservadas, y una voluntad demostrada de absorber un nivel de sufrimiento que los hombres que iniciaron la guerra claramente no esperaban que tolerara. El mismo oficial se&#241;al&#243; algo sobre lo que habr&#237;a que detenerse largamente y que apenas se ha mencionado. Antes de la guerra, Ir&#225;n hab&#237;a ofrecido a los Estados Unidos un mejor acuerdo en Ginebra que el que ofrece ahora. Los bombardeos no ablandaron la posici&#243;n iran&#237;. La endurecieron.</p><p>Esto es lo primero que hay que mantener firme en la mente. Mucho de lo que ha seguido resulta confuso, y la confusi&#243;n est&#225; en parte fabricada, pero el resultado subyacente no es confuso en absoluto. La guerra logr&#243; lo contrario de ambos prop&#243;sitos.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">Por qu&#233; Ir&#225;n no Cedi&#243;</h3><p>Quiero tomar en serio, antes de continuar, el argumento m&#225;s s&#243;lido a favor de la guerra y de la relaci&#243;n que la produjo, porque el argumento merece algo mejor que la caricatura que habitualmente recibe.</p><p>Desde una perspectiva israel&#237;, un arma nuclear iran&#237; no es una inconveniencia estrat&#233;gica sino una cuesti&#243;n existencial. Un estado cuyos funcionarios han hablado abiertamente de la eliminaci&#243;n de Israel, que ha armado y financiado a Hezbol&#225;, Ham&#225;s y los hut&#237;es como instrumentos de presi&#243;n sobre las fronteras israel&#237;es, y que ha invertido d&#233;cadas en capacidad de enriquecimiento, parece desde Tel Aviv una amenaza que ning&#250;n gobierno israel&#237; responsable podr&#237;a dejar sin respuesta. El trauma de los &#250;ltimos a&#241;os, y el horror espec&#237;fico que reconfigur&#243; el pensamiento estrat&#233;gico israel&#237; (el 7 de octubre de 2023), otorgaron a esa percepci&#243;n una fuerza que los observadores externos subestiman. El peligro genuino de la proliferaci&#243;n nuclear en una regi&#243;n inestable no es una ficci&#243;n inventada para justificar la agresi&#243;n. Es un problema real, y las personas que pierden el sue&#241;o por &#233;l no son todas c&#237;nicas.</p><p>La dificultad reside en que el c&#225;lculo iran&#237; es igualmente racional, y las dos racionalidades no se encuentran. Consid&#233;rese la perspectiva desde el interior del r&#233;gimen iran&#237; y obs&#233;rvese el &#250;ltimo cuarto de siglo de conducta estadounidense. Libia renunci&#243; a su programa de armamento en 2003, y en menos de ocho a&#241;os su l&#237;der hab&#237;a muerto con la aviaci&#243;n occidental sobrevolando el pa&#237;s. Iraq no pose&#237;a armas de destrucci&#243;n masiva y fue invadido de todos modos. Corea del Norte prob&#243; un artefacto y desde entonces se la ha dejado b&#225;sicamente en paz. La lecci&#243;n que extrae un estratega iran&#237; de esta secuencia no es sutil. Los estados que renunciaron a la capacidad fueron destruidos. El estado que la adquiri&#243; sobrevivi&#243;. Para un gobierno que entiende su propia seguridad en estos t&#233;rminos, un arma nuclear no es un acto de agresi&#243;n sino una p&#243;liza de seguro, la &#250;nica garant&#237;a de que la experiencia de febrero de 2025 no se repetir&#225;.</p><p>Sobre esta l&#243;gica estrat&#233;gica se superpone algo m&#225;s antiguo y m&#225;s dif&#237;cil de negociar, y aqu&#237; mi formaci&#243;n como historiador resulta m&#225;s &#250;til que cualquier informe de inteligencia. La Rep&#250;blica Isl&#225;mica se fund&#243; sobre un relato de resistencia. La oposici&#243;n a los Estados Unidos no es una pol&#237;tica de ese estado sino un principio constitutivo del mismo, tejido en su autocomprensi&#243;n desde 1979. Por eso el espect&#225;culo que Washington parec&#237;a esperar &#8212;una secuencia en la que Am&#233;rica bombardea Ir&#225;n durante dos d&#237;as e Ir&#225;n aparece despu&#233;s en una mesa para renunciar a su programa&#8212; nunca fue plausible. Un r&#233;gimen construido sobre la memoria de haberse enfrentado a las grandes potencias no puede presentar ante su propio pueblo la capitulaci&#243;n bajo el fuego como otra cosa que no sea una humillaci&#243;n, y la humillaci&#243;n es lo &#250;nico que semejante r&#233;gimen no puede sobrevivir. El pa&#237;s combati&#243; a Iraq durante ocho a&#241;os y enterr&#243; a centenares de miles de sus j&#243;venes antes de aceptar condiciones que consider&#243; deshonrosas. Esa es la memoria hist&#243;rica que los nuevos hombres de Teher&#225;n llevan consigo a cada negociaci&#243;n. Imaginar que unos pocos d&#237;as de ataques a&#233;reos y una sucesi&#243;n de amenazas en las redes sociales podr&#237;an sobreponerse a ella es interpretar mal, en el nivel m&#225;s fundamental, con qu&#233; clase de estado se est&#225; tratando.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9Vhx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe69422d2-e40f-4ba5-9319-b3cfe2b3b54c_407x480.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9Vhx!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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style="text-align: center;">Ni&#241;os voluntarios iran&#237;es en el frente de la guerra contra Irak (1980-1988).</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p>As&#237; pues, la guerra no s&#243;lo fracas&#243; en quebrar a Ir&#225;n. Le entreg&#243; a la facci&#243;n m&#225;s intransigente del pa&#237;s la prueba que siempre hab&#237;a querido, a saber, que la &#250;nica seguridad verdadera resid&#237;a en una capacidad que los dem&#225;s no pudieran arrebatarle, y elimin&#243; al &#250;nico gobernante cuya autoridad hab&#237;a mantenido esa conclusi&#243;n a raya.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">La Forma de la Rendici&#243;n</h3><p>El diecisiete de junio, un alto funcionario estadounidense ley&#243; el texto del Memorando de Entendimiento de Islamabad ante los periodistas en una conferencia telef&#243;nica. El documento, mediado por Pakist&#225;n y Catar y firmado bajo el nuevo liderazgo iran&#237;, es breve, y su estructura narra la historia completa para quien est&#233; dispuesto a leerlo despacio. Casi todas las concesiones fluyen en una sola direcci&#243;n, y fluyen de inmediato. Casi todos los objetivos estadounidenses quedan diferidos a una negociaci&#243;n futura que los propios funcionarios de la administraci&#243;n reconocen en privado que quiz&#225; nunca llegue a concluir.</p><p>Consid&#233;rese lo que Ir&#225;n recibe al firmar. Los Estados Unidos comienzan de inmediato a levantar su bloqueo naval y se comprometen a ponerle fin en un plazo de treinta d&#237;as. Emiten exenciones del Tesoro para la exportaci&#243;n de petr&#243;leo crudo iran&#237; y para los servicios bancarios, de seguros y de transporte que hacen posible esa exportaci&#243;n. Se comprometen a poner a disposici&#243;n los activos iran&#237;es congelados, una suma de aproximadamente veinticuatro mil millones de d&#243;lares, y el documento especifica que esos fondos podr&#225;n liberarse a cualquier beneficiario designado por el banco central de Ir&#225;n, una cl&#225;usula cuya amplitud podr&#237;a interpretarse como incluyente de entidades que figuran en listas de terrorismo y sanciones. Se comprometen, junto con socios regionales, a un plan de reconstrucci&#243;n y desarrollo de al menos trescientos mil millones de d&#243;lares. El petr&#243;leo iran&#237; fluye de manera abrumadora hacia China, lo que significa que en el momento en que se levante el bloqueo, los ingresos comenzar&#225;n a moverse de nuevo y la crisis econ&#243;mica inmediata que constitu&#237;a la principal vulnerabilidad del r&#233;gimen empezar&#225; a remitir.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp" width="1456" height="971" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:971,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:186152,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/webp&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/i/202650416?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!qsAO!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7799a7bf-312d-486b-b48c-89c530b73c0c_2048x1366.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Consid&#233;rese ahora lo que reciben los Estados Unidos. Ir&#225;n ofrece el libre tr&#225;nsito por el Estrecho de Ormuz, pero s&#243;lo durante sesenta d&#237;as, tras los cuales podr&#225; comenzar a cobrar tasas que nunca impuso antes de la guerra, lo que violar&#237;a el mismo criterio de retorno del comercio a las condiciones de antes del conflicto que hab&#237;a establecido el Secretario de Estado. Sobre la cuesti&#243;n nuclear, la causa central de todo el conflicto, hay un &#250;nico p&#225;rrafo, vago en todos los puntos de contenci&#243;n. Ir&#225;n reafirma que no construir&#225; un arma, una promesa que formul&#243; por primera vez en 1970 al ratificar el Tratado de No Proliferaci&#243;n y que repiti&#243; en 2015. La palabra que emplea el texto es <em>reafirma</em>, lo que equivale a decir que este compromiso no es nuevo y no le cuesta nada a Teher&#225;n. El arsenal de uranio enriquecido, unas once toneladas, incluida una cantidad enriquecida hasta justo por debajo del grado de arma, ha de diluirse in situ en lugar de sacarse del pa&#237;s. Ir&#225;n conserva la posesi&#243;n f&#237;sica del material. Conserva sus centrifugadoras avanzadas. Conserva el conocimiento cient&#237;fico que produjo el programa en primer lugar. Todo lo sustancial queda reservado para una negociaci&#243;n de seguimiento de sesenta d&#237;as.</p><p>Ese plazo es la clave. Los funcionarios estadounidenses reconocen, extraoficialmente, que es poco probable que un acuerdo nuclear genuino pueda alcanzarse en sesenta d&#237;as, sobre todo si se mide frente a los a&#241;os que consumieron negociaciones anteriores con Ir&#225;n. La funci&#243;n de la ventana de sesenta d&#237;as no es diplom&#225;tica. Es electoral. Sit&#250;a la perspectiva de un acuerdo concluido justo antes de las elecciones de mitad de mandato en noviembre, en un momento en que la posici&#243;n interna del presidente est&#225; descendiendo y el alivio de la bajada de los precios de la energ&#237;a tendr&#237;a valor pol&#237;tico. La estructura del acuerdo tiene m&#225;s sentido cuando se lee no como una soluci&#243;n sino como un dispositivo para ganar tiempo a cuenta de un reloj pol&#237;tico dom&#233;stico.</p><p>Los halcones lo entendieron de inmediato, y merece la pena dar a su objeci&#243;n el cr&#233;dito que se merece, porque converge desde la direcci&#243;n opuesta hacia la misma conclusi&#243;n que yo extraigo. Un alto cargo de la Foundation for Defense of Democracies se&#241;al&#243; que los Estados Unidos hab&#237;an cedido su palanca econ&#243;mica m&#225;s duradera antes de que hubiera comenzado siquiera la parte dif&#237;cil de la negociaci&#243;n. Tiene raz&#243;n. Una vez que el bloqueo desaparece, los activos se descongelan y el petr&#243;leo fluye hacia China, el incentivo que deb&#237;a obligar a las concesiones iran&#237;es ya se ha agotado. Los iran&#237;es tienen todos los motivos para dejar que los sesenta d&#237;as se prolonguen en meses y los meses en a&#241;os, recogiendo los beneficios del memorando sin conceder nada m&#225;s. Una especialista en Ir&#225;n de la Brookings Institution describi&#243; el resultado probable con precisi&#243;n. Una situaci&#243;n de ni guerra ni paz, dijo, es c&#243;moda para Ir&#225;n, porque semejante limbo s&#243;lo aumenta la presi&#243;n sobre el presidente estadounidense para que acepte cualquier acuerdo que mantenga el estrecho abierto y los mercados energ&#233;ticos tranquilos.</p><p>Y aqu&#237; se hace visible el problema m&#225;s grave, uno que el documento no puede responder. Incluso si Ir&#225;n diluye su arsenal en lugar de enviarlo al extranjero, qu&#233; impide que haga de nuevo lo que hizo antes. Despu&#233;s de 2015, en virtud del acuerdo de Obama, Ir&#225;n envi&#243; la inmensa mayor&#237;a de su arsenal a Rusia. Entreg&#243; el material. En menos de una d&#233;cada lo hab&#237;a reconstruido hasta once toneladas. Esta vez ni siquiera entrega el material. Lo conserva, lo diluye bajo inspecci&#243;n, retiene las centrifugadoras y la pericia t&#233;cnica, y espera. Las instalaciones que fueron bombardeadas pueden reconstruirse. El conocimiento no puede desaprenderse. No existe ninguna barrera estructural que impida a Ir&#225;n situarse de nuevo en el umbral nuclear en el plazo de diez a&#241;os, y esta vez sin un Jamenei que proh&#237;ba el paso final. El memorando es un ap&#243;sito. La herida es el programa, y el programa sigue ah&#237;.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">El presidente y el Reloj</h3><p>La conducta del autor estadounidense de la guerra, Donald Trump, ha sido, por cualquier est&#225;ndar hist&#243;rico, extraordinaria, y no de una manera que lo favorezca. En la pr&#225;ctica ordinaria de la diplomacia, los comandantes no anuncian las operaciones futuras, por la raz&#243;n elemental de que hacerlo advierte al adversario y pone en peligro la misi&#243;n. El comandante en jefe estadounidense anunci&#243; sus ataques de antemano en las redes sociales, amenaz&#243; con que Ir&#225;n ser&#237;a golpeado con gran dureza una noche determinada, prometi&#243; al d&#237;a siguiente que los golpes ser&#237;an contundentes y claros, y luego, en cuesti&#243;n de horas, cancel&#243; los ataques que acababa de proclamar. Su secretario de Defensa, Pete Hegseth, un hombre que previamente hab&#237;a reprendido a los periodistas por preguntar sobre operaciones futuras, se present&#243; ante la prensa para pronosticar bombardeos, y despu&#233;s vio c&#243;mo el presidente los cancelaba.</p><p>Hemos quedado atrapados en un patr&#243;n que se repite en ciclos de uno o dos d&#237;as, y no es la marca de una estrategia. Es la marca de la improvisaci&#243;n. Un hombre se present&#243; a las elecciones con la promesa de poner fin a las guerras en lugar de iniciarlas, vendi&#243; esa promesa a una base que se la tom&#243; en serio, y despu&#233;s llev&#243; a cabo exactamente el tipo de implicaci&#243;n militar exterior que hab&#237;a condenado, mientras rectificaba sus propias amenazas con suficiente rapidez como para provocar v&#233;rtigo en cualquiera que intentara seguir la pol&#237;tica. Es posible que no exista una pol&#237;tica coherente que seguir. Lo que se ha mostrado al p&#250;blico parece un presidente que responde en tiempo real a quien le habl&#243; en &#250;ltimo lugar, con las contradicciones expuestas en p&#250;blico porque el medio de su pensamiento es un hilo de redes sociales y no un proceso deliberativo a puerta cerrada.</p><p>La presi&#243;n que disciplina todo esto es el precio de la gasolina. La historia al respecto es inequ&#237;voca, y los votantes estadounidenses son absolutamente coherentes en ella. Expulsaron al presidente anterior, Joe Biden, en parte por el coste del combustible y del coste de vida en general, y el estrecho que Ir&#225;n ha cerrado efectivamente transporta algo cercano a una quinta parte del petr&#243;leo mundial. Con los precios ahora muy por encima de donde estaban cuando el coste de vida era un argumento ganador contra la administraci&#243;n anterior, el hombre que utiliz&#243; ese argumento queda ensartado en &#233;l. Sus dos objetivos est&#225;n en guerra el uno con el otro. No puede presionar militarmente a Ir&#225;n y bajar el precio en el surtidor al mismo tiempo, porque el estrecho s&#243;lo se reabre cuando Ir&#225;n decide que se le han dado razones suficientes para reabrirlo, y darle a Ir&#225;n esa raz&#243;n significa entregarle a Teher&#225;n algo real. El memorando es la forma que adopta esa contradicci&#243;n. Alivia el precio de la energ&#237;a ahora, antes de noviembre, y aplaza la encrucijada estrat&#233;gica a una fecha a la que el calendario de unas elecciones no presta atenci&#243;n.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q4II!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00efd58c-85c5-4b7a-b3cb-5e7aea89623f_1726x1102.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q4II!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00efd58c-85c5-4b7a-b3cb-5e7aea89623f_1726x1102.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q4II!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00efd58c-85c5-4b7a-b3cb-5e7aea89623f_1726x1102.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q4II!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00efd58c-85c5-4b7a-b3cb-5e7aea89623f_1726x1102.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q4II!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00efd58c-85c5-4b7a-b3cb-5e7aea89623f_1726x1102.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q4II!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00efd58c-85c5-4b7a-b3cb-5e7aea89623f_1726x1102.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q4II!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00efd58c-85c5-4b7a-b3cb-5e7aea89623f_1726x1102.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Q4II!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00efd58c-85c5-4b7a-b3cb-5e7aea89623f_1726x1102.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Los precios de la gasolina en los Estados Unidos seg&#250;n el New York Times. Actualizado el 18 de junio de 2026 a las 7:40 a.m. ET. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2026/business/energy-environment/gas-prices-map-iran-war-oil.html</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><h3 style="text-align: center;">La M&#225;quina y el Dinero</h3><p>Hay una dimensi&#243;n en la conducta del presidente en las redes sociales que merece m&#225;s escrutinio del que ha recibido, y tiene que ver con la extra&#241;a relaci&#243;n entre sus palabras y los mercados financieros.</p><p>Una gran parte de las operaciones burs&#225;tiles modernas pasa por sistemas automatizados que leen los textos entrantes, incluidas las publicaciones presidenciales, y ejecutan &#243;rdenes en cuesti&#243;n de milisegundos, m&#225;s r&#225;pido de lo que cualquier ser humano puede terminar una frase. Cuando el presidente publica un lenguaje asociado a un acuerdo o a la distensi&#243;n, algunos de estos sistemas mueven el petr&#243;leo, la renta variable y las divisas antes de que ning&#250;n analista haya le&#237;do las palabras. El mercado parece creerle. Lo que ocurre se parece m&#225;s al reconocimiento de patrones por parte de las m&#225;quinas, y los inversores humanos m&#225;s sofisticados, que hace tiempo llegaron a la conclusi&#243;n de que sus declaraciones son ruido, venden durante el rebote automatizado y se benefician de la brecha entre la velocidad del algoritmo y el juicio del que carece.</p><p>Esto plantea dos preguntas que la conversaci&#243;n pol&#237;tica ha eludido en su mayor parte. La primera concierne a la sospechosa regularidad con la que los mercados se mueven en torno a anuncios que un peque&#241;o c&#237;rculo conoc&#237;a de antemano. Cuando un presidente anuncia ataques, el mercado se mueve, y cuando los cancela, vuelve a su posici&#243;n anterior; una persona con conocimiento previo de ambos anuncios puede beneficiarse dos veces. Una ocurrencia aislada podr&#237;a ser una coincidencia. Un ciclo repetido que mueve los precios en direcciones predecibles empieza a parecerse a otra cosa, y los mercados de predicci&#243;n que apuestan sobre el momento de tales eventos han mostrado patrones an&#243;malos que ning&#250;n regulador con poder real de aplicaci&#243;n ha investigado seriamente, en parte porque ese regulador responde ante la administraci&#243;n en cuesti&#243;n.</p><p>La segunda pregunta es m&#225;s amplia y m&#225;s permanente. La arquitectura de estos mercados &#8212;las m&#225;quinas que ahora traducen el estado de &#225;nimo de un presidente en el precio del combustible para la gente corriente&#8212; fue construida por empresas privadas que optimizaban sus propios beneficios, bajo marcos regulatorios redactados para un mundo de operadores humanos que tomaban decisiones a lo largo de horas. Nadie pregunt&#243; jam&#225;s a los votantes si esta era una manera aceptable de gestionar el sistema nervioso financiero de la econom&#237;a. Se fue acumulando a trav&#233;s de una serie de decisiones individualmente legales hasta convertirse en una realidad sist&#233;mica que nadie eligi&#243; y que la mayor&#237;a no comprende. Las personas m&#225;s expuestas a la volatilidad &#8212;los ahorradores ordinarios cuyos fondos de jubilaci&#243;n viven en el mercado que esta arquitectura configura&#8212; son precisamente las que menos capacidad tienen para influir en ella o para optar por salir. La guerra contra Ir&#225;n ha hecho brevemente visible esta maquinaria normalmente invisible, porque la conexi&#243;n entre una publicaci&#243;n y el precio de la gasolina es lo suficientemente concreta como para sentirse. Que esa visibilidad produzca alguna correcci&#243;n es dudoso, a tenor de los precedentes hist&#243;ricos.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">Las Sillas Vac&#237;as</h3><p>Una pregunta de fondo que explica gran parte de la incompetencia que se ha puesto de manifiesto es si los Estados Unidos simplemente carecen de la pericia para entender a un estado como Ir&#225;n. La respuesta es que la pericia existe y no estaba en la sala.</p><p>Los cuadros de carrera del Departamento de Estado, los servicios de inteligencia y el Departamento de Defensa poseen un conocimiento genuinamente de primer nivel sobre Ir&#225;n, sobre la teolog&#237;a pol&#237;tica chi&#237;, sobre la mec&#225;nica interna de la Guardia Revolucionaria. Las personas dedican d&#233;cadas a adquirirlo. Los hablantes de farsi y de &#225;rabe con experiencia operativa no pueden fabricarse r&#225;pidamente. La administraci&#243;n que condujo esta guerra hab&#237;a pasado a&#241;os tratando esa pericia institucional como un enemigo al que hab&#237;a que sortear en lugar de como un recurso al que hay que consultar, y una reducci&#243;n dr&#225;stica del personal federal incidi&#243; profundamente en exactamente los profesionales de nivel medio que son los depositarios de la memoria institucional. Cuando las personas que dir&#237;an al presidente una verdad inc&#243;moda han desaparecido o han sido apartadas, lo que queda son las personas que le dicen lo que desea escuchar.</p><p>El liderazgo agrava el problema. Los hombres colocados al frente de las instituciones pertinentes son, por los est&#225;ndares de cualquier administraci&#243;n anterior de cualquier partido, conspicuamente poco cualificados para el trabajo. Uno dirige una comunidad de inteligencia despu&#233;s de una carrera construida principalmente sobre la difusi&#243;n de teor&#237;as acerca de la deslealtad de esa comunidad. Otro dirige el Departamento de Defensa despu&#233;s de una carrera como presentador de televisi&#243;n, y su conducta durante la guerra &#8212;pronosticando ataques a periodistas en viaje con la cadencia de un segmento de emisi&#243;n&#8212; reflejaba la profesi&#243;n de la que realmente proced&#237;a, no la que ahora ocupa. Las propias negociaciones se encomendaron a un financiero inmobiliario y al yerno del presidente, hombres cuyo logro diplom&#225;tico anterior hab&#237;a involucrado a estados &#225;rabes con fuertes incentivos econ&#243;micos y sin ninguna ideolog&#237;a revolucionaria construida en torno a la resistencia al poder estadounidense, un logro que no se transfiere a Teher&#225;n. No hay prueba alguna de que ninguno de ellos aportara a una negociaci&#243;n que gir&#243; por completo en torno a ella un conocimiento serio de la historia iran&#237;.</p><p>El resultado es un bucle de retroalimentaci&#243;n en el que los instintos del presidente se validan en lugar de ponerse a prueba. Comprendi&#243; el enfrentamiento a trav&#233;s del marco de una negociaci&#243;n comercial, en la que los plazos suponen presi&#243;n y la otra parte termina cediendo porque la econom&#237;a lo exige, y las personas a su alrededor encontraron evidencias de ese marco en lugar de presentar el registro hist&#243;rico que lo contradice. El paralelo m&#225;s pr&#243;ximo no es favorecedor. Lyndon Baines Johnson tuvo acceso a algunas de las mentes estrat&#233;gicas m&#225;s brillantes de su generaci&#243;n sobre la cuesti&#243;n de Vietnam &#8212;hombres que le dijeron en privado que la guerra no pod&#237;a ganarse&#8212; y la dificultad estructural de decirle a un hombre poderoso que sus supuestos fundamentales son err&#243;neos produjo una de las grandes cat&#225;strofes de la pol&#237;tica exterior estadounidense. El mecanismo no fue la estupidez. Fue la forma en que el poder se a&#237;sla del conocimiento que m&#225;s necesita.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!duRC!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcdc5b692-18fd-41b9-bee0-92d8e55a17b9_952x1458.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!duRC!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcdc5b692-18fd-41b9-bee0-92d8e55a17b9_952x1458.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!duRC!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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style="text-align: center;">https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2026/us/politics/trump-cabinet-meetings.html</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p>Esto conduce a una pregunta m&#225;s amplia, genuinamente antigua. &#191;Por qu&#233; los pa&#237;ses son gobernados por los simp&#225;ticos y los ambiciosos en lugar de por quienes han dedicado sus vidas a estudiar c&#243;mo los estados triunfan y fracasan? Plat&#243;n construy&#243; su filosof&#237;a pol&#237;tica en torno a esta queja exacta, observando la democracia ateniense y llegando a la conclusi&#243;n de que los sistemas populares seleccionan a los persuasivos por encima de los sabios. Las razones persisten. Las elecciones recompensan un conjunto de habilidades &#8212;la recaudaci&#243;n de fondos, la actuaci&#243;n ante las c&#225;maras, la compresi&#243;n de la dificultad en un eslogan&#8212; que tiene muy poco que ver con el trabajo de gobernar. El dinero, en particular, orienta la selecci&#243;n hacia quienes proceden de los negocios o est&#225;n en deuda con ellos, lo que explica por qu&#233; los perfiles procedentes del &#225;mbito comercial est&#225;n tan sobrerepresentados en relaci&#243;n con su utilidad real. Y la pericia misma se lee, en una tradici&#243;n estadounidense larga y poderosa, como la pretensi&#243;n de una clase educada que desprecia a la gente corriente, una acusaci&#243;n que a menudo resulta m&#225;s perjudicial en las urnas que la incompetencia demostrada. El profesor que realmente entiende Ir&#225;n tendr&#237;a dificultades para sobrevivir a unas primarias, y muchos de los que podr&#237;an gobernar bien han observado lo que la pol&#237;tica hace con las personas serias y han optado por no entrar en ella. El pa&#237;s que hered&#243; el siglo XX, con sus grandes universidades y su tecnolog&#237;a dominante, no carece de talento intelectual. Est&#225; estructurado de tal manera que ese talento rara vez llega al sill&#243;n donde se toman las decisiones.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">La Cuesti&#243;n de Israel</h3><p>Llegamos al centro del asunto, la pregunta en torno a la cual gira todo lo dem&#225;s: por qu&#233; los Estados Unidos gastar&#237;an su credibilidad, su estabilidad econ&#243;mica y la posici&#243;n interna de su presidente en una guerra impulsada por los intereses estrat&#233;gicos de otro estado, Israel.</p><p>Comencemos con el motor de la guerra, porque la cr&#243;nica sobre este punto ha sido m&#225;s clara de lo que la conversaci&#243;n pol&#237;tica admite. El primer ministro israel&#237; visit&#243; Washington dos veces en r&#225;pida sucesi&#243;n, y la escalada sigui&#243;. Dentro de la administraci&#243;n, seg&#250;n ha indicado la informaci&#243;n period&#237;stica, el apetito por la acci&#243;n militar se concentraba en el presidente y su secretario de Defensa, mientras que otros, entre ellos el vicepresidente, albergaban reservas, lo que significa que los frenos institucionales que en otro tiempo habr&#237;an ralentizado semejante decisi&#243;n fueron ignorados en favor del acceso directo a los niveles m&#225;s altos. Ha habido informaciones sobre la vigilancia por parte de la inteligencia israel&#237; del canal negociador estadounidense con Ir&#225;n, lo que, de ser exacto, describe algo que no es una alianza en ning&#250;n sentido tradicional sino un socio menor que lleva a cabo operaciones contra su patr&#243;n para restringir la libertad de acci&#243;n de &#233;ste y para programar las interrupciones en momentos de avance diplom&#225;tico.</p><p>La novedad hist&#243;rica merece enunciarse con claridad. Por primera vez, las fuerzas estadounidenses e israel&#237;es actuaron conjuntamente como socios abiertos. Las administraciones anteriores ten&#237;an cuidado de mantener un cortafuegos. Tras los atentados de 2001, los Estados Unidos dejaron claro que la participaci&#243;n israel&#237; en sus campa&#241;as en Iraq y Afganist&#225;n resultar&#237;a contraproducente, porque la imagen de aviones israel&#237;es sobrevolando tierras musulmanas resquebrajar&#237;a la cooperaci&#243;n &#225;rabe que esas campa&#241;as requer&#237;an. Ese cortafuegos ha desaparecido ahora, y las consecuencias para la percepci&#243;n de los Estados Unidos en el mundo musulm&#225;n &#8212;en los pa&#237;ses mismos de cuyas bases e inteligencia depende Washington&#8212; son graves y claramente no fueron calculadas de antemano. El propio memorando contiene una ilustraci&#243;n asombrosa de cu&#225;n escaso es el control que la relaci&#243;n ofrece ahora. Su lenguaje sobre el L&#237;bano equivale a un rechazo estadounidense de las preocupaciones israel&#237;es sobre Hezbol&#225;, y sin embargo Israel ya ha se&#241;alado que no se considera vinculado por &#233;l y ha continuado atacando el sur del L&#237;bano incluso mientras se ultimaba el acuerdo. Washington firm&#243; un p&#225;rrafo que Israel dice que tiene intenci&#243;n de ignorar.</p><p>&#191;Por qu&#233;, entonces, pagan los Estados Unidos ese precio? La respuesta honesta requiere varios factores que la conversaci&#243;n suele tratar por separado, pero que operan conjuntamente como un sistema.</p><p>El argumento estrat&#233;gico es en gran medida una herencia de la Guerra Fr&#237;a que ha sobrevivido al mundo para el que fue concebida. Israel fue en su d&#237;a valorado como un aliado democr&#225;tico fiable frente a la influencia sovi&#233;tica, una plataforma de inteligencia avanzada y un banco de pruebas para la tecnolog&#237;a militar estadounidense, y en los a&#241;os sesenta y setenta esa l&#243;gica ten&#237;a una fuerza real aunque exig&#237;a ignorar por completo la cuesti&#243;n palestina. La versi&#243;n posterior a la Guerra Fr&#237;a reencuadr&#243; a Israel como socio frente a la ambici&#243;n regional iran&#237;, que es precisamente la l&#243;gica que ahora ha producido un Ir&#225;n envalentonado en lugar de uno contenido. La justificaci&#243;n estrat&#233;gica, en otras palabras, ha estado erosion&#225;ndose durante a&#241;os y acaba de sufrir un duro golpe por su propia aplicaci&#243;n.</p><p>Lo que sostiene la relaci&#243;n m&#225;s all&#225; de su l&#243;gica estrat&#233;gica es, en primer lugar, una arquitectura pol&#237;tica interna de notable durabilidad. D&#233;cadas de defensa organizada han convertido el apoyo a Israel en el camino de menor resistencia para cualquier pol&#237;tico estadounidense que desee financiaci&#243;n electoral, cobertura favorable e inmunidad frente a la acusaci&#243;n de antisemitismo, y esa arquitectura funciona ahora con independencia de si la relaci&#243;n subyacente sirve a los intereses estadounidenses, porque fue construida para servir a la relaci&#243;n y no para evaluarla. En segundo lugar, la coalici&#243;n pol&#237;tica del presidente descansa en gran medida sobre una base evang&#233;lica cristiana, una parte significativa de la cual sostiene creencias escatol&#243;gicas seg&#250;n las cuales el control jud&#237;o de la tierra b&#237;blica es una condici&#243;n previa para el retorno de Cristo. Para este sector del electorado, el apoyo al maximalismo territorial israel&#237; no es un juicio estrat&#233;gico susceptible de revisi&#243;n sino un compromiso teol&#243;gico inmune al argumento estrat&#233;gico. Un presidente que depende de estos votantes no puede recalibrar la relaci&#243;n sin incurrir en un coste dom&#233;stico que ning&#250;n coste internacional podr&#225; superar en sus c&#225;lculos. La relaci&#243;n tiene, en este sentido, el car&#225;cter de una relaci&#243;n entre patr&#243;n y cliente en la que el cliente ejerce una agencia aut&#243;noma muy superior a la del patr&#243;n, configurando la pol&#237;tica estadounidense en lugar de recibirla, lo que la convierte en una dependencia inusual que opera con gran fuerza en ambas direcciones.</p><p>Luego est&#225; la cuesti&#243;n moral, que no puede dejarse de lado aunque sea la m&#225;s dif&#237;cil de abordar con precisi&#243;n. El argumento a favor de una patria jud&#237;a tras la cat&#225;strofe del antisemitismo europeo fue, y sigue siendo, un argumento moral serio. Se complica en la distancia entre esa justificaci&#243;n y la forma espec&#237;fica que adopt&#243; el estado, porque la fundaci&#243;n de Israel implic&#243; el desplazamiento de aproximadamente setecientos mil palestinos en 1947 y 1948, un hecho establecido no por los enemigos del estado sino por historiadores israel&#237;es que trabajaban en archivos militares israel&#237;es, el m&#225;s prominente de los cuales document&#243; el car&#225;cter sistem&#225;tico de las expulsiones. El argumento de que la destrucci&#243;n del juda&#237;smo europeo justific&#243; la desposesi&#243;n de una poblaci&#243;n que no tuvo ninguna parte en esa destrucci&#243;n es uno que historiadores y fil&#243;sofos serios han debatido durante d&#233;cadas sin llegar a un acuerdo, y se asienta en el centro sin cicatrizar de por qu&#233; este conflicto ha resistido todos los instrumentos ordinarios de la diplomacia. En cuanto al presente, el Tribunal Internacional de Justicia determin&#243; a principios de 2024 que hab&#237;a indicios plausibles de que la conducta de Israel en Gaza pod&#237;a encuadrarse en la Convenci&#243;n sobre el Genocidio, y dict&#243; medidas provisionales en consecuencia, sobre la base de pruebas de destrucci&#243;n sistem&#225;tica de infraestructuras civiles y de declaraciones de funcionarios que alcanzaban el umbral legal de la intenci&#243;n genocida.</p><p>Si la determinaci&#243;n final alcanza el est&#225;ndar exigido para una constataci&#243;n de genocidio es una cuesti&#243;n sobre la que los tribunales deliberar&#225;n durante a&#241;os. Lo que no est&#225; seriamente en disputa es que la magnitud de las v&#237;ctimas civiles, la destrucci&#243;n de toda la infraestructura de un territorio y el desplazamiento de casi toda su poblaci&#243;n constituyen una cat&#225;strofe que ha alterado de manera permanente el modo en que gran parte del mundo, y una proporci&#243;n creciente de los propios estadounidenses, comprende la relaci&#243;n. Careciendo de sanidad p&#250;blica y de acceso universal a la universidad, muchos estadounidenses ven cada vez m&#225;s a Israel como un par&#225;sito que succiona sus d&#243;lares de impuestos para la guerra en lugar de como un aliado &#250;til. Cualquiera que sea la opini&#243;n que merezca esa descripci&#243;n, el cambio de percepci&#243;n que describe es real y est&#225; documentado, especialmente entre los j&#243;venes, y representa el primer desaf&#237;o estructural serio en cincuenta a&#241;os a la arquitectura que ha mantenido la relaci&#243;n en su lugar.</p><p>Esa inversi&#243;n se hizo visible de manera dram&#225;tica el 19 de junio de 2026, cuando el vicepresidente JD Vance lanz&#243; lo que equivali&#243; a una advertencia p&#250;blica al gobierno israel&#237;, declarando ante la prensa que, si &#233;l formara parte del gabinete israel&#237;, quiz&#225;s no estar&#237;a atacando al &#250;nico aliado poderoso que le quedaba a Israel en el mundo. La declaraci&#243;n iba dirigida espec&#237;ficamente a las cr&#237;ticas israel&#237;es al acuerdo preliminar con Ir&#225;n y a los continuos ataques israel&#237;es sobre el sur del L&#237;bano a pesar de las objeciones estadounidenses. Independientemente de su efecto final, la declaraci&#243;n represent&#243; algo sin precedente claro en la historia moderna de la relaci&#243;n: un vicepresidente estadounidense en funciones amenazando p&#250;blicamente con la retirada del patrocinio en el lenguaje de un ultim&#225;tum y no de una nota diplom&#225;tica. Independientemente de si esto marca una reorientaci&#243;n genuina o una expresi&#243;n moment&#225;nea de frustraci&#243;n, revel&#243; que la asimetr&#237;a descrita en los p&#225;rrafos anteriores, el cliente condicionando al patr&#243;n y no al rev&#233;s, se hab&#237;a hecho suficientemente visible como para exigir un reconocimiento p&#250;blico en el m&#225;s alto nivel del gobierno estadounidense.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!R-CZ!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6f6dba43-6535-4aa0-b1df-db034a69b7df_2048x1365.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Los Estados Unidos obtienen de esta relaci&#243;n cooperaci&#243;n real en inteligencia y tecnolog&#237;a, y obtienen la facilidad pol&#237;tica interna de mantener lo que resulta dif&#237;cil abandonar. Si esas ganancias pueden sopesarse frente a los costes enumerados a lo largo de este ensayo &#8212;la credibilidad, la econom&#237;a, la complicidad, la fractura interna&#8212; es la pregunta que el pa&#237;s se ha negado hasta ahora a hacerse a s&#237; mismo con honestidad.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">El Acreedor Paciente: China</h3><p>Si los Estados Unidos son el gran perdedor de este episodio, el gran ganador no es Ir&#225;n, que ha sobrevivido y ha ganado influencia pero sigue siendo un estado da&#241;ado y empobrecido bajo el techo de un arsenal nuclear israel&#237;. El ganador es China, y el argumento es s&#243;lido en todas las dimensiones a la vez.</p><p>El petr&#243;leo iran&#237; fluye de manera abrumadora hacia China, de modo que el levantamiento del bloqueo y el alivio de las sanciones suministran energ&#237;a barata y con descuento directamente a la econom&#237;a china, normalizada a escala con la infraestructura bancaria y de seguros de la que carec&#237;a la adquisici&#243;n en mercados grises. China lo consigui&#243; sin disparar un solo tiro, sin gastar capital diplom&#225;tico y sin conceder nada a nadie. Bajo esa ganancia inmediata yace una m&#225;s profunda. China fabrica la inmensa mayor&#237;a de la capacidad solar mundial y domina la cadena de suministro de bater&#237;as, habiendo apostado por que el siglo venidero funcione con energ&#237;as renovables en lugar de con hidrocarburos. Los Estados Unidos acaban de pasar meses combatiendo en una guerra para controlar un estrecho que importa principalmente porque el mundo todav&#237;a funciona con petr&#243;leo &#8212;un activo del siglo XX&#8212; mientras China asegura simult&#225;neamente petr&#243;leo barato de Ir&#225;n y construye el sistema que lo sustituir&#225;. Eso no es una contradicci&#243;n. Es una cobertura que deja a Pek&#237;n en posici&#243;n ventajosa ante casi cualquier futuro.</p><p>El da&#241;o a la credibilidad multiplica la ganancia energ&#233;tica. Los estados del Golfo que pasaron d&#233;cadas construyendo su seguridad sobre el supuesto de la fiabilidad estadounidense vieron c&#243;mo los Estados Unidos desestabilizaban los mercados energ&#233;ticos regionales, atacaban una instalaci&#243;n de agua que puede constituir un crimen de guerra seg&#250;n el derecho internacional, anunciaban y cancelaban operaciones en cuesti&#243;n de horas a trav&#233;s de una red social, y firmaban un memorando que sus propios funcionarios reconocen como insuficiente. Esos estados han ido profundizando en silencio sus relaciones con Pek&#237;n, porque ya no consideran fiables las garant&#237;as estadounidenses. Los aliados europeos, ya sometidos a tensiones, presenciaron el mismo espect&#225;culo. Las instituciones que hicieron funcionar la primac&#237;a estadounidense &#8212;las alianzas y el orden financiero&#8212; dependen de una previsibilidad que la conducta de esta guerra ha erosionado de manera visible, y la previsibilidad, una vez perdida, es lo m&#225;s dif&#237;cil de reconstruir en la diplomacia.</p><p>La escenograf&#237;a de la reciente visita del presidente estadounidense a Pek&#237;n captur&#243; la nueva aritm&#233;tica con una claridad que ning&#250;n comunicado podr&#237;a igualar. Lleg&#243; necesitando alivio de la presi&#243;n econ&#243;mica que su propio conflicto comercial hab&#237;a creado, y la coreograf&#237;a reflejaba esa necesidad, hasta llegar al peque&#241;o y revelador momento en el jard&#237;n, la pregunta de si a otros l&#237;deres se les concede el mismo acceso, la postura de un hombre que busca que le digan que es especial. Una potencia verdaderamente hegem&#243;nica no formula semejantes preguntas. El teatro diplom&#225;tico chino a ese nivel no es nunca accidental, y todos los gobiernos que lo presenciaron entendieron lo que se les estaba mostrando.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FbhN!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2f436ff-11ac-483f-a54b-d6be9e6bfa8d_2048x1365.webp" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FbhN!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2f436ff-11ac-483f-a54b-d6be9e6bfa8d_2048x1365.webp 424w, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2f436ff-11ac-483f-a54b-d6be9e6bfa8d_2048x1365.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!FbhN!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd2f436ff-11ac-483f-a54b-d6be9e6bfa8d_2048x1365.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>La primac&#237;a estadounidense siempre iba a enfrentarse a un serio desaf&#237;o por parte de la capacidad china a lo largo de este siglo. Lo que la guerra contra Ir&#225;n puede haber hecho es acelerar esa transici&#243;n en varios a&#241;os, al demostrar de manera concreta y altamente visible que el poder estadounidense no es ni tan fiable ni tan competentemente ejercido como el orden construido despu&#233;s de 1945 supon&#237;a. Las potencias medias recalibran su posici&#243;n en funci&#243;n del comportamiento demostrado, no de los compromisos declarados, y el comportamiento demostrado en 2026 da a cada una de ellas razones para orientarse hacia Pek&#237;n.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">El Balance</h3><p>Voy a exponer el balance con claridad, porque la claridad es la cuesti&#243;n.</p><p>Los Estados Unidos sacrificaron una parte de su posici&#243;n como potencia ordenadora del mundo. Sacrificaron una parte de su estabilidad econ&#243;mica, en el precio de la energ&#237;a y en la perturbaci&#243;n m&#225;s amplia que un estrecho cerrado env&#237;a a los mercados de combustible, fertilizantes y metales. Sacrificaron, en casa, la credibilidad de un presidente que hab&#237;a prometido la paz y entregado una guerra que no pudo ganar ni concluir limpiamente. Y gastaron todo esto, en la lectura m&#225;s caritativa de sus propios objetivos, para proteger a otro estado de un arma nuclear iran&#237;.</p><p>La crueldad del balance reside en que puede que no haya comprado siquiera eso. Ir&#225;n conserv&#243; su conocimiento, sus centrifugadoras y su arsenal. La guerra que deb&#237;a cerrar el camino a la bomba produjo las condiciones &#8212;el gobierno intransigente envalentonado, el freno eliminado, la prueba de que s&#243;lo un arma garantiza la supervivencia&#8212; que hacen la bomba m&#225;s probable en la pr&#243;xima d&#233;cada que menos probable. La palanca m&#225;s duradera, la presi&#243;n econ&#243;mica, se ha cedido antes de que comenzara la negociaci&#243;n dura. Las preguntas m&#225;s dif&#237;ciles se han aplazado a una ventana de sesenta d&#237;as que existe por mor de unas elecciones al Congreso en noviembre. El estrecho se reabrir&#225;, el petr&#243;leo fluir&#225; hacia China, los activos se descongelar&#225;n, y dentro de diez a&#241;os un Ir&#225;n m&#225;s rico y m&#225;s seguro podr&#225; situarse de nuevo donde se encontraba antes, esta vez sin nadie en Teher&#225;n que proh&#237;ba el paso final.</p><p>Ese es el ap&#243;sito. La herida es lo que el ap&#243;sito cubre, y el ap&#243;sito se aplic&#243; por mor de un calendario.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">Una nota desde el presente</h3><p>Comenc&#233; diciendo que esto era un ap&#233;ndice, y quiero cerrarlo explicando por qu&#233; un historiador de la Iberia medieval lo escribir&#237;a en absoluto, porque la conexi&#243;n no es incidental a mi trabajo sino central en &#233;l.</p><p>Mi objeto de estudio es el modo en que el poder se viste a s&#237; mismo. La monarqu&#237;a castellana que estudio tom&#243; el lenguaje visual y epigr&#225;fico del califato que hab&#237;a derrotado y lo visti&#243; como un disfraz de soberan&#237;a, proyectando a trav&#233;s del prestigio prestado una autoridad que los meros hechos de la conquista no pod&#237;an proporcionar por s&#237; solos. La disciplina de leer ese disfraz &#8212;de preguntarse qu&#233; afirma la imagen y cu&#225;l era la estructura que hab&#237;a debajo&#8212; es la misma que permite a una persona leer un memorando y ver, bajo el lenguaje de un acuerdo, la forma de una rendici&#243;n, o leer una publicaci&#243;n en redes sociales y ver, bajo el anuncio de fortaleza, el ritmo de la improvisaci&#243;n, o leer un momento escenificado en un jard&#237;n y ver, bajo la ceremonia, la nueva distribuci&#243;n del poder.</p><p>Los periodistas en cuyo trabajo me he apoyado hicieron bien su trabajo, y les estoy en deuda. Pero las convenciones de su profesi&#243;n les obligan a citar a los funcionarios, a mencionar a los analistas y a detenerse antes de ensamblar esas piezas en la conclusi&#243;n que las piezas apoyan, dejando ese ensamblaje a un lector que habitualmente carece del tiempo y del marco para realizarlo. Lo que he intentado hacer aqu&#237; es ese ensamblaje. Es mi lectura, y la sostengo con suficiente provisionalidad como para ser corregido por los acontecimientos. Hay mucho que ocurrir&#225; en el futuro pr&#243;ximo que har&#225; irrelevantes algunas partes de este art&#237;culo, pues la retrospectiva siempre es m&#225;s clara que la previsi&#243;n. Pero el patr&#243;n me parece claro, y la responsabilidad de cualquiera que trabaje con la evidencia &#8212;ya sea la evidencia de un techo del siglo XIII o de un tratado del siglo XXI&#8212; es decir lo que el patr&#243;n muestra antes que lo que resulta c&#243;modo decir.</p><p>El pa&#237;s que hered&#243; el siglo XX ha pasado la mayor parte de este a&#241;o demostrando que ya no se gobierna con la competencia que esa herencia supon&#237;a. Si rectifica el rumbo antes de que los costes se vuelvan irreversibles es la pregunta abierta, y nada en el registro que he expuesto aqu&#237; sugiere, en la trayectoria actual, que la respuesta sea afirmativa.</p><p>El tiempo dir&#225;.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">Fuentes</h3><p>La base factual de este ensayo se nutre de los siguientes reportajes del New York Times, junio de 2026: Ashley Cai, &#8220;Trump Is the Only Person Who Can Save America, According to His Cabinet&#8221; (27 de mayo); David E. Sanger, &#8220;U.S. and Iran Zero In on Four Nuclear Issues in Talks&#8221; (9 de junio); Christoph Koettl y Christiaan Triebert, &#8220;Analysis of Satellite Image and Videos Suggest Precision U.S. Strikes on Iranian Water Facility&#8221; (10 de junio); Eric Schmitt, &#8220;Trump and Hegseth Broadcast U.S. Military Strikes Before They Happen&#8221; (11 de junio); Steven Erlanger, &#8220;With a Deal Seemingly Close, the U.S. Faces an Iran More Willing to Withstand Pressure&#8221; (13 de junio); la cobertura en vivo del peri&#243;dico, &#8220;Mediator Says U.S.-Iran Peace Deal Could be Finalized Within 24 Hours&#8221; (13 de junio); el texto anotado del Memor&#225;ndum de Entendimiento de Islamabad, &#8220;A Look at the Text of the Agreement Between the United States and Iran,&#8221; con an&#225;lisis de David E. Sanger, Michael Crowley, Anton Troianovski y Luke Broadwater (17 de junio); Matthew Bloch, Steven Rich y Emmett Lindner, &#8220;How High Are Gas Prices Where You Live?&#8221; (18 de junio); y Erica L. Green, Max Bearak, Jonathan Swan y Rebecca F. Elliott, &#8220;Vance Issues Blunt Warning to Israel as He Defends Trump&#8217;s Iran Deal&#8221; (19 de junio). El material hist&#243;rico sobre la <em>Nakba</em> refleja la investigaci&#243;n archiv&#237;stica de Benny Morris recogida en <em>The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited</em>; la caracterizaci&#243;n jur&#237;dica de los procedimientos sobre Gaza refleja la providencia de medidas cautelares del Tribunal Internacional de Justicia de enero de 2024.</p><p>La interpretaci&#243;n a lo largo de todo el texto es m&#237;a.</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Casa de Pilatos Complete Walkthrough | Recorrido completo por la Casa de Pilatos]]></title><description><![CDATA[Two centuries of marble, tilework, and aristocratic ambition. Exclusive video for subscribers. | Dos siglos de m&#225;rmol, azulejer&#237;a y ambici&#243;n nobiliaria. En v&#237;deo exclusivo para suscriptores.]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/casa-de-pilatos-complete-walkthrough</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/casa-de-pilatos-complete-walkthrough</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 18 Jun 2026 00:13:16 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BraA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F226a5728-ed18-4e53-ab92-86e7eba8d5e5_5712x4284.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!BraA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F226a5728-ed18-4e53-ab92-86e7eba8d5e5_5712x4284.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div 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style="text-align: center;">Description</h3><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>The Casa de Pilatos in Seville is one of the most layered aristocratic palaces in Spain, a building that accumulated its present form across two centuries of acquisition, demolition, and reinvention. Begun in the late fifteenth century by Pedro Enr&#237;quez and Catalina de Ribera, it passed through the hands of the Marqueses de Tarifa and the Duques de Alcal&#225; before entering the patrimony of the Medinaceli, who hold it still. What makes it extraordinary is the density of its inheritance: Genoese marble columns, Triana azulejo programs of over 150 distinct designs, Roman sculpture gathered in Naples by the first Duke of Alcal&#225;, Renaissance fresco cycles, and a staircase crowned by one of the finest muqarnas qubba domes in Seville, all organized around a mud&#233;jar patio that was itself remodeled twice before the sixteenth century ended. I spent mid-day walking every room and garden on camera, and the result is a complete visual tour, from the apeadero and the Sal&#243;n del Pretorio through part of the upper galleries, the Sal&#243;n Pacheco, and out into the Jard&#237;n Grande. Subscribers get early access now.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">&#8212;</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>La Casa de Pilatos en Sevilla es uno de los palacios aristocr&#225;ticos m&#225;s complejos de Espa&#241;a, un edificio que fue adquiriendo su forma actual a lo largo de dos siglos de adquisiciones, demoliciones y reinvenciones. Iniciada a finales del siglo XV por Pedro Enr&#237;quez y Catalina de Ribera, pas&#243; por manos de los Marqueses de Tarifa y los Duques de Alcal&#225; antes de incorporarse al patrimonio de los Medinaceli, que lo conservan hasta hoy. Lo que la hace extraordinaria es la densidad de su herencia: columnas de m&#225;rmol genov&#233;s, programas de azulejos de Triana con m&#225;s de 150 dise&#241;os distintos, escultura romana reunida en N&#225;poles por el primer Duque de Alcal&#225;, ciclos de frescos renacentistas, y una escalera coronada por una de las c&#250;pulas de moc&#225;rabes m&#225;s notables de Sevilla, todo ello organizado en torno a un patio mud&#233;jar que fue remodelado dos veces antes de que concluyera el siglo XVI. Pas&#233; la mitad del d&#237;a recorriendo cada sala y jard&#237;n con la c&#225;mara, y el resultado es un recorrido visual completo, desde el apeadero y el Sal&#243;n del Pretorio hasta parte de las galer&#237;as altas, el Sal&#243;n Pacheco, y el Jard&#237;n Grande. Los suscriptores tienen acceso anticipado ahora.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CpGw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F847a56dd-41ae-4d4d-a18a-f4017d451a3f_3024x4032.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CpGw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F847a56dd-41ae-4d4d-a18a-f4017d451a3f_3024x4032.heic 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CpGw!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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   ]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Myth We Chose: Convivencia and the Invention of Medieval Tolerance | El mito que elegimos: la convivencia y la invención de la tolerancia medieval]]></title><description><![CDATA[On the politics of a medieval golden age | Sobre la pol&#237;tica de una edad dorada medieval]]></description><link>https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-myth-we-chose-convivencia-and</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://cruzycreciente.substack.com/p/the-myth-we-chose-convivencia-and</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Walter Evans]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 12 Jun 2026 01:24:03 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j6et!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c1cfbbb-b278-4d98-9f97-c6b442eec76f_5712x4284.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<h3 style="text-align: center;">Preview/Avance</h3><p>&#127482;&#127480;</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>The concept of convivencia, the idea that medieval Spain produced a rare and fragile harmony among Muslims, Christians, and Jews, has become one of the most frequently invoked examples in modern debates about religion, identity, and coexistence. But the choice of Spain as the defining case was never simply a historical judgment. This article asks why al-Andalus became the standard reference point, who made that choice, and what a wider view of the medieval world reveals when we stop letting the myth do the thinking for us.</em></p><p style="text-align: justify;">&#8212;</p><p style="text-align: justify;">&#127466;&#127480;</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><em>El concepto de convivencia, la idea de que la Espa&#241;a medieval produjo una armon&#237;a singular y fr&#225;gil entre musulmanes, cristianos y jud&#237;os, se ha convertido en uno de los ejemplos m&#225;s invocados en los debates contempor&#225;neos sobre religi&#243;n, identidad y coexistencia. Pero la elecci&#243;n de Espa&#241;a como caso definitorio nunca fue simplemente un juicio hist&#243;rico. Este art&#237;culo pregunta por qu&#233; al-&#193;ndalus se convirti&#243; en el punto de referencia habitual, qui&#233;n tom&#243; esa decisi&#243;n y qu&#233; revela una mirada m&#225;s amplia al mundo medieval cuando dejamos de permitir que el mito piense por nosotros.</em></p><div id="youtube2-AHgkGVX7cRs" class="youtube-wrap" data-attrs="{&quot;videoId&quot;:&quot;AHgkGVX7cRs&quot;,&quot;startTime&quot;:null,&quot;endTime&quot;:null}" data-component-name="Youtube2ToDOM"><div class="youtube-inner"><iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/AHgkGVX7cRs?rel=0&amp;autoplay=0&amp;showinfo=0&amp;enablejsapi=0" frameborder="0" loading="lazy" gesture="media" allow="autoplay; fullscreen" allowautoplay="true" allowfullscreen="true" width="728" height="409"></iframe></div></div><h1 style="text-align: center;"><strong>Essay/Ensayo</strong></h1><h3 style="text-align: center;">English Version &#127482;&#127480;</h3><p style="text-align: center;"><strong>La versi&#243;n en espa&#241;ol se encuentra m&#225;s abajo.</strong></p><p style="text-align: justify;">There is a question that does not get asked often enough about the concept of <em>convivencia</em>, and it is a simple one. Why Spain?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">When scholars, journalists, and politicians reach for a historical example of Muslims, Christians, and Jews living together in the same society, they almost always reach for medieval Iberia. Al-Andalus. The Alhambra. Maimonides walking the streets of Cordoba. It has become the standard reference point for interfaith coexistence in the medieval world, the place people invoke when they want to argue that Islam and the West have a history of productive encounter rather than perpetual conflict.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">But if you step back and think about it, the choice is strange. Because Egypt fits the description just as well, and in some respects better.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9OW6!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ef06d45-4248-456c-9be6-63f474cc8076_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9OW6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ef06d45-4248-456c-9be6-63f474cc8076_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9OW6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ef06d45-4248-456c-9be6-63f474cc8076_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9OW6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ef06d45-4248-456c-9be6-63f474cc8076_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9OW6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ef06d45-4248-456c-9be6-63f474cc8076_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9OW6!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ef06d45-4248-456c-9be6-63f474cc8076_4032x3024.jpeg" width="1456" height="1941" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ef06d45-4248-456c-9be6-63f474cc8076_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9OW6!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1ef06d45-4248-456c-9be6-63f474cc8076_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">Islamic Cairo</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Egypt was majority Christian until roughly the thirteenth or fourteenth century. Its Coptic Christian community has been present continuously from late antiquity through the Islamic conquests, through the Fatimid caliphate, through the Mamluk sultanate, and into the present day. Its Jewish community, one of the oldest in the world, did not leave until the middle of the twentieth century, expelled not by a medieval monarch but by the pressures of modern nationalism and the Arab-Israeli conflict. If longevity and continuity are the measures of successful coexistence, Egypt has a stronger claim than Spain.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fFv!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3431e283-d458-40c0-b241-728f5df8c9de_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fFv!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3431e283-d458-40c0-b241-728f5df8c9de_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fFv!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3431e283-d458-40c0-b241-728f5df8c9de_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fFv!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3431e283-d458-40c0-b241-728f5df8c9de_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fFv!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3431e283-d458-40c0-b241-728f5df8c9de_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fFv!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3431e283-d458-40c0-b241-728f5df8c9de_4032x3024.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3431e283-d458-40c0-b241-728f5df8c9de_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fFv!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3431e283-d458-40c0-b241-728f5df8c9de_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fFv!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3431e283-d458-40c0-b241-728f5df8c9de_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8fFv!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3431e283-d458-40c0-b241-728f5df8c9de_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">The Church of Saint Barbara in Cairo, Egypt</h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KbtL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F70eafa29-621f-4c72-b528-d1cc6df71301_960x1280.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KbtL!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F70eafa29-621f-4c72-b528-d1cc6df71301_960x1280.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KbtL!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F70eafa29-621f-4c72-b528-d1cc6df71301_960x1280.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KbtL!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F70eafa29-621f-4c72-b528-d1cc6df71301_960x1280.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KbtL!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F70eafa29-621f-4c72-b528-d1cc6df71301_960x1280.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KbtL!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F70eafa29-621f-4c72-b528-d1cc6df71301_960x1280.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Ben Ezra Synagogue in Cairo, Egypt</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">So why does nobody write bestselling books about Egyptian <em>convivencia</em>?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The answer, I want to argue, has almost nothing to do with the Middle Ages. It has everything to do with the twentieth century, and with who was doing the talking, why they were doing it, and who they thought was listening.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The word <em>convivencia</em> itself comes from Am&#233;rico Castro, a Spanish philologist who published a book called <em>Espa&#241;a en su historia</em> in 1948. Castro was a Republican exile, driven out of Spain by Franco&#8217;s victory in the Civil War, writing from Princeton with the pain of defeat still fresh. He needed a vision of Spain that could stand against the Catholic nationalist ideology that had crushed the Republic, an image of his country&#8217;s past that was pluralist, creative, and fundamentally incompatible with Francoist mythology.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HZOC!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F62c62605-5ecd-49ee-bffa-8a176dac7651_1042x1482.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HZOC!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HZOC!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F62c62605-5ecd-49ee-bffa-8a176dac7651_1042x1482.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HZOC!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F62c62605-5ecd-49ee-bffa-8a176dac7651_1042x1482.png" width="1042" height="1482" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F62c62605-5ecd-49ee-bffa-8a176dac7651_1042x1482.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HZOC!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F62c62605-5ecd-49ee-bffa-8a176dac7651_1042x1482.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HZOC!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F62c62605-5ecd-49ee-bffa-8a176dac7651_1042x1482.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HZOC!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F62c62605-5ecd-49ee-bffa-8a176dac7651_1042x1482.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Al-Andalus gave him that. The medieval period in which Muslims, Christians, and Jews had shared the Iberian Peninsula became, in Castro&#8217;s hands, the true source of Spain&#8217;s cultural genius. The great figures of medieval Spanish civilization, he argued, were products of this encounter, not of any single religious tradition. <em>Convivencia</em> was not merely a historical description. It was a political argument dressed in the language of scholarship.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0gwl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa58261f7-2158-4868-b198-bd9e957177d1_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0gwl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa58261f7-2158-4868-b198-bd9e957177d1_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0gwl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa58261f7-2158-4868-b198-bd9e957177d1_5712x4284.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0gwl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa58261f7-2158-4868-b198-bd9e957177d1_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0gwl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa58261f7-2158-4868-b198-bd9e957177d1_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0gwl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa58261f7-2158-4868-b198-bd9e957177d1_5712x4284.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0gwl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa58261f7-2158-4868-b198-bd9e957177d1_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0gwl!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa58261f7-2158-4868-b198-bd9e957177d1_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">The mihrab of the Mosque of C&#243;rdoba</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">That origin matters because it tells us what <em>convivencia</em> was always for. It was a tool in a debate about Spain&#8217;s identity, a debate being conducted by Spaniards and hispanophiles, for an audience that cared about Spain. Egypt was never part of that conversation because nobody in that conversation needed Egypt to be.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dYxg!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faac14325-2434-4490-aed0-a99432d58b32_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dYxg!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faac14325-2434-4490-aed0-a99432d58b32_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dYxg!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faac14325-2434-4490-aed0-a99432d58b32_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dYxg!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faac14325-2434-4490-aed0-a99432d58b32_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dYxg!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faac14325-2434-4490-aed0-a99432d58b32_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dYxg!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faac14325-2434-4490-aed0-a99432d58b32_4032x3024.jpeg" width="1456" height="1941" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faac14325-2434-4490-aed0-a99432d58b32_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dYxg!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faac14325-2434-4490-aed0-a99432d58b32_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dYxg!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faac14325-2434-4490-aed0-a99432d58b32_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dYxg!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Faac14325-2434-4490-aed0-a99432d58b32_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Icon of Peter and Paul in Cairo, Egypt</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Later in the twentieth century, particularly after the publications of scholars like Mar&#237;a Rosa Menocal, <em>convivencia</em> migrated from academic debate into a broader cultural argument, especially in the United States. Menocal&#8217;s <em>The Ornament of the World</em>, published in 2002, appeared after the September 11 attacks, and its timing was not incidental to its reception. It offered American readers, reeling from a moment that seemed to pit Islam against the West as permanent civilizational enemies, a story in which the two had once produced something beautiful together.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hxF7!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46b81590-f394-410f-9ec2-26f55cded1ea_671x1000.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hxF7!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46b81590-f394-410f-9ec2-26f55cded1ea_671x1000.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hxF7!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F46b81590-f394-410f-9ec2-26f55cded1ea_671x1000.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: justify;">Al-Andalus was perfectly positioned for that argument. It was in Europe. It was legible through monuments and figures already familiar from a Western humanistic education. Averroes, whose commentaries on Aristotle had shaped Scholastic philosophy, was from Cordoba. Maimonides, whose <em>Guide for the Perplexed</em> sat on the shelves of every university library, was from Cordoba. The Alhambra was already a fixture of European romantic imagination, visited by Washington Irving nearly two centuries earlier. The story could be told in a language Western audiences already partly knew.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j6et!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c1cfbbb-b278-4d98-9f97-c6b442eec76f_5712x4284.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j6et!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c1cfbbb-b278-4d98-9f97-c6b442eec76f_5712x4284.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j6et!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c1cfbbb-b278-4d98-9f97-c6b442eec76f_5712x4284.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j6et!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c1cfbbb-b278-4d98-9f97-c6b442eec76f_5712x4284.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">The Alhambra in Granada, Spain</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Egypt did not have that portfolio in the Western imagination. The Coptic Church, despite its extraordinary antiquity, was not part of the standard survey of Western civilization. The Fatimid caliphate, despite its remarkable record of cross-confessional court culture, was not a name that rang immediate bells in American undergraduate classrooms. The history was real, but it had not been packaged and marketed for a Western audience that needed a usable medieval past.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KOCY!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26aaa4da-c42c-4bb3-b888-79a58ac8051c_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KOCY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26aaa4da-c42c-4bb3-b888-79a58ac8051c_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KOCY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26aaa4da-c42c-4bb3-b888-79a58ac8051c_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KOCY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26aaa4da-c42c-4bb3-b888-79a58ac8051c_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KOCY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26aaa4da-c42c-4bb3-b888-79a58ac8051c_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KOCY!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26aaa4da-c42c-4bb3-b888-79a58ac8051c_4032x3024.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26aaa4da-c42c-4bb3-b888-79a58ac8051c_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KOCY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26aaa4da-c42c-4bb3-b888-79a58ac8051c_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KOCY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26aaa4da-c42c-4bb3-b888-79a58ac8051c_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KOCY!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F26aaa4da-c42c-4bb3-b888-79a58ac8051c_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">The Hanging Church in Cairo, Egypt</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">There is also a structural reason why Spain became the template and Egypt did not, and it has to do with the shape of the story.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The <em>convivencia</em> myth depends on a catastrophe. It needs an ending. The expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, the forced baptism of Muslims, the systematic dismantling of a society that had, whatever its tensions and inequalities, sustained three religious communities for centuries: this is what transforms the preceding period into a golden age. Loss produces nostalgia. Nostalgia produces myth.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xyZt!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0513399b-56b1-4564-8471-43742786dc5c_512x397.webp" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xyZt!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0513399b-56b1-4564-8471-43742786dc5c_512x397.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xyZt!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0513399b-56b1-4564-8471-43742786dc5c_512x397.webp 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xyZt!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0513399b-56b1-4564-8471-43742786dc5c_512x397.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xyZt!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0513399b-56b1-4564-8471-43742786dc5c_512x397.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xyZt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0513399b-56b1-4564-8471-43742786dc5c_512x397.webp" width="512" height="397" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0513399b-56b1-4564-8471-43742786dc5c_512x397.webp 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xyZt!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0513399b-56b1-4564-8471-43742786dc5c_512x397.webp 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xyZt!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0513399b-56b1-4564-8471-43742786dc5c_512x397.webp 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xyZt!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0513399b-56b1-4564-8471-43742786dc5c_512x397.webp 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h6 style="text-align: center;">Forced conversions of Muslims in Iberia</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Egypt&#8217;s story does not have that shape. The shift from Christian majority to Muslim majority was gradual, spread over centuries, without a single edict that could anchor a before and after. The departure of the Jewish community in the twentieth century was real and often traumatic, but it unfolded over decades and was entangled with events, the 1948 war, the Suez crisis, Nasserist nationalism, that resist reduction to a simple narrative of expulsion and exile. The story does not end with a date that everyone can remember, and without that date, it is harder to construct the myth.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LJ1J!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F298e8626-0001-42b7-afe0-dc93e9b79e1d_505x356.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LJ1J!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F298e8626-0001-42b7-afe0-dc93e9b79e1d_505x356.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LJ1J!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F298e8626-0001-42b7-afe0-dc93e9b79e1d_505x356.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LJ1J!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F298e8626-0001-42b7-afe0-dc93e9b79e1d_505x356.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LJ1J!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F298e8626-0001-42b7-afe0-dc93e9b79e1d_505x356.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LJ1J!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F298e8626-0001-42b7-afe0-dc93e9b79e1d_505x356.png" width="505" height="356" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F298e8626-0001-42b7-afe0-dc93e9b79e1d_505x356.png 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LJ1J!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F298e8626-0001-42b7-afe0-dc93e9b79e1d_505x356.png 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LJ1J!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F298e8626-0001-42b7-afe0-dc93e9b79e1d_505x356.png 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!LJ1J!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F298e8626-0001-42b7-afe0-dc93e9b79e1d_505x356.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">Egyptian soldiers in the Faluja Pocket, 1948, displaying captured Israeli weaponry. Future president Gamal Abdel Nasser stands at far left.</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">None of this means that <em>convivencia</em> as applied to Spain is simply false. The history of these groups living in contact is real, even if the romantic version of it smooths over coercions, conversions, and violence that the myth prefers to forget. And the history of Christian-Muslim-Jewish interaction in medieval Egypt is equally real, equally complex, and in some periods, equally remarkable. The Fatimid caliphs employed Christian and Jewish administrators at the highest levels of their court. Coptic scribes worked in Arabic. Jewish merchants operated under legal frameworks that, while never treating them as equals, gave them protections and economic freedoms that varied considerably across time and dynasty.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">The point is not that Egypt deserves its own golden age myth to set against Spain&#8217;s. Myths of that kind always distort more than they illuminate. The point is that the choice of Spain as the defining case of medieval interfaith coexistence was never primarily a historical judgment. It was a cultural and political one, made by specific people in specific circumstances for specific audiences, and it has been reproduced ever since because it continues to serve those same functions.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KyzG!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e89ac58-6a58-45cd-82f2-bf63bef78c31_4032x3024.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KyzG!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_424, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e89ac58-6a58-45cd-82f2-bf63bef78c31_4032x3024.jpeg 424w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KyzG!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_848, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e89ac58-6a58-45cd-82f2-bf63bef78c31_4032x3024.jpeg 848w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KyzG!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1272, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e89ac58-6a58-45cd-82f2-bf63bef78c31_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KyzG!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_webp, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e89ac58-6a58-45cd-82f2-bf63bef78c31_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="/__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KyzG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e89ac58-6a58-45cd-82f2-bf63bef78c31_4032x3024.jpeg" width="1456" height="1092" 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/__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e89ac58-6a58-45cd-82f2-bf63bef78c31_4032x3024.jpeg 1272w, /__u/substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KyzG!, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/w_1456, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/c_limit, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/f_auto, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/q_auto:good, /__u/cruzycreciente.substack.com/fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e89ac58-6a58-45cd-82f2-bf63bef78c31_4032x3024.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" 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style="text-align: center;">The author in Cairo, Egypt in 2022</h6><p style="text-align: center;"></p><p style="text-align: justify;">If we want to understand how Muslims, Christians, and Jews actually negotiated shared space in the medieval world, we need a wider frame. Egypt belongs in that frame. So does the Fatimid caliphate. So do the Jewish communities of the Ottoman Empire, the Christian merchants of Mamluk Cairo, and a dozen other cases that the <em>convivencia</em> myth has pushed to the margins by insisting that what happened in Cordoba and Toledo is the story worth telling.</p><h3 style="text-align: center;">Versi&#243;n Castellano &#127466;&#127480;</h3><p style="text-align: justify;">Hay una pregunta que no se formula con suficiente frecuencia sobre el concepto de convivencia, y es sencilla. &#191;Por qu&#233; Espa&#241;a?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Cuando acad&#233;micos, periodistas y pol&#237;ticos buscan un ejemplo hist&#243;rico de musulmanes, cristianos y jud&#237;os conviviendo en una misma sociedad, casi siempre recurren a la Iberia medieval. Al-&#193;ndalus. La Alhambra. Maim&#243;nides paseando por las calles de C&#243;rdoba. Se ha convertido en el punto de referencia habitual para la coexistencia interreligiosa en el mundo medieval, el lugar al que se acude cuando se quiere argumentar que el islam y Occidente tienen una historia de encuentro productivo m&#225;s que de conflicto perpetuo.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Pero si uno da un paso atr&#225;s y lo piensa bien, la elecci&#243;n resulta extra&#241;a. Porque Egipto encaja en la descripci&#243;n igual de bien, y en algunos aspectos mejor.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Egipto fue mayoritariamente cristiano hasta aproximadamente los siglos XIII o XIV. Su comunidad cristiana copta ha estado presente de manera continua desde la Antig&#252;edad tard&#237;a, a trav&#233;s de las conquistas isl&#225;micas, del califato fatim&#237;, del sultanato mameluco y hasta el d&#237;a de hoy. Su comunidad jud&#237;a, una de las m&#225;s antiguas del mundo, no se fue hasta mediados del siglo XX, expulsada no por un monarca medieval sino por las presiones del nacionalismo moderno y el conflicto &#225;rabe-israel&#237;. Si la longevidad y la continuidad son las medidas de una coexistencia lograda, Egipto tiene m&#225;s m&#233;ritos que Espa&#241;a.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">&#191;Por qu&#233;, entonces, nadie escribe libros de gran &#233;xito sobre la convivencia egipcia?</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La respuesta, quiero argumentar, tiene muy poco que ver con la Edad Media. Tiene todo que ver con el siglo XX, y con qui&#233;n hablaba, por qu&#233; lo hac&#237;a y a qui&#233;n cre&#237;a que se dirig&#237;a.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La palabra convivencia procede de Am&#233;rico Castro, fil&#243;logo espa&#241;ol que public&#243; un libro titulado <em>Espa&#241;a en su historia</em> en 1948. Castro era un exiliado republicano, expulsado de Espa&#241;a por la victoria de Franco en la Guerra Civil, que escrib&#237;a desde Princeton con el dolor de la derrota todav&#237;a reciente. Necesitaba una visi&#243;n de Espa&#241;a que pudiera oponerse a la ideolog&#237;a cat&#243;lico-nacionalista que hab&#237;a aplastado a la Rep&#250;blica, una imagen del pasado de su pa&#237;s que fuera pluralista, creativa y fundamentalmente incompatible con la mitolog&#237;a franquista.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Al-&#193;ndalus le proporcion&#243; eso. El per&#237;odo medieval en que musulmanes, cristianos y jud&#237;os hab&#237;an compartido la Pen&#237;nsula Ib&#233;rica se convirti&#243;, en manos de Castro, en la verdadera fuente del genio cultural de Espa&#241;a. Los grandes personajes de la civilizaci&#243;n espa&#241;ola medieval eran, seg&#250;n &#233;l, productos de ese encuentro, no de una sola tradici&#243;n religiosa. La convivencia no era simplemente una descripci&#243;n hist&#243;rica. Era un argumento pol&#237;tico vestido con el lenguaje de la erudici&#243;n.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Ese origen importa porque nos dice para qu&#233; sirvi&#243; siempre la convivencia. Era una herramienta en un debate sobre la identidad de Espa&#241;a, un debate protagonizado por espa&#241;oles y estudiosos de Espa&#241;a, dirigido a un p&#250;blico que se preocupaba por Espa&#241;a. Egipto nunca form&#243; parte de esa conversaci&#243;n porque nadie en ella necesitaba que lo fuera.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">M&#225;s avanzado el siglo XX, especialmente tras las publicaciones de acad&#233;micos como Mar&#237;a Rosa Menocal, la convivencia emigr&#243; del debate acad&#233;mico a un argumento cultural m&#225;s amplio, sobre todo en los Estados Unidos. <em>El ornamento del mundo</em> de Menocal, publicado en 2002, apareci&#243; despu&#233;s de los atentados del 11 de septiembre, y su momento de publicaci&#243;n no fue ajeno a su recepci&#243;n. Ofrec&#237;a a los lectores estadounidenses, conmocionados por un acontecimiento que parec&#237;a enfrentar al islam y a Occidente como enemigos civilizacionales permanentes, una historia en la que los dos hab&#237;an producido algo hermoso juntos.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Al-&#193;ndalus estaba perfectamente posicionado para ese argumento. Estaba en Europa. Era legible a trav&#233;s de monumentos y figuras ya familiares para quien hubiera recibido una educaci&#243;n humanista occidental. Averroes, cuyos comentarios a Arist&#243;teles hab&#237;an dado forma a la filosof&#237;a escol&#225;stica, era de C&#243;rdoba. Maim&#243;nides, cuya <em>Gu&#237;a de perplejos</em> ocupaba estantes en todas las bibliotecas universitarias, era de C&#243;rdoba. La Alhambra ya era un elemento fijo de la imaginaci&#243;n rom&#225;ntica europea, visitada por Washington Irving casi dos siglos antes. La historia pod&#237;a contarse en un idioma que el p&#250;blico occidental ya conoc&#237;a en parte.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Egipto no contaba con ese bagaje en la imaginaci&#243;n occidental. La Iglesia copta, pese a su extraordinaria antig&#252;edad, no formaba parte del temario habitual de la civilizaci&#243;n occidental. El califato fatim&#237;, pese a su notable historial de cultura cortesana multiconfesional, no era un nombre que despertara una respuesta inmediata en las aulas universitarias estadounidenses. La historia era real, pero no hab&#237;a sido empaquetada y comercializada para un p&#250;blico occidental que necesitaba un pasado medieval utilizable.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Existe tambi&#233;n una raz&#243;n estructural por la que Espa&#241;a se convirti&#243; en el modelo y Egipto no, y tiene que ver con la forma de la historia.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">El mito de la convivencia depende de una cat&#225;strofe. Necesita un final. La expulsi&#243;n de los jud&#237;os de Espa&#241;a en 1492, el bautismo forzado de los musulmanes, el desmantelamiento sistem&#225;tico de una sociedad que hab&#237;a sostenido, con todas sus tensiones y desigualdades, a tres comunidades religiosas durante siglos: eso es lo que transforma el per&#237;odo anterior en una edad dorada. La p&#233;rdida genera nostalgia. La nostalgia genera mito.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La historia de Egipto no tiene esa forma. El tr&#225;nsito de una mayor&#237;a cristiana a una mayor&#237;a musulmana fue gradual, extendido a lo largo de siglos, sin un edicto &#250;nico que pudiera anclar un antes y un despu&#233;s. La marcha de la comunidad jud&#237;a en el siglo XX fue real y a menudo traum&#225;tica, pero se desarroll&#243; a lo largo de d&#233;cadas y se entrelaz&#243; con acontecimientos (la guerra de 1948, la crisis de Suez, el nacionalismo nasserista) que resisten la reducci&#243;n a una narrativa simple de expulsi&#243;n y exilio. La historia no termina con una fecha que todos puedan recordar, y sin esa fecha es m&#225;s dif&#237;cil construir el mito.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Nada de esto significa que la convivencia aplicada a Espa&#241;a sea simplemente falsa. La historia de estos grupos compartiendo un mismo espacio es real, aunque la versi&#243;n rom&#225;ntica de ella suavice coerciones, conversiones y violencias que el mito prefiere olvidar. Y la historia de la interacci&#243;n entre cristianos, musulmanes y jud&#237;os en el Egipto medieval es igualmente real, igualmente compleja y, en algunos per&#237;odos, igualmente notable. Los califas fatim&#237;es emplearon administradores cristianos y jud&#237;os en los niveles m&#225;s altos de su corte. Los escribas coptos trabajaron en &#225;rabe. Los mercaderes jud&#237;os operaron bajo marcos jur&#237;dicos que, aunque nunca los trataron como iguales, les otorgaban protecciones y libertades econ&#243;micas que variaron considerablemente a lo largo del tiempo y de las dinast&#237;as.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">La cuesti&#243;n no es que Egipto merezca su propio mito de edad dorada para contraponer al de Espa&#241;a. Los mitos de ese tipo siempre distorsionan m&#225;s de lo que iluminan. La cuesti&#243;n es que la elecci&#243;n de Espa&#241;a como caso definitorio de la coexistencia interreligiosa medieval nunca fue ante todo un juicio hist&#243;rico. Fue un juicio cultural y pol&#237;tico, adoptado por personas concretas en circunstancias concretas para p&#250;blicos concretos, y ha sido reproducido desde entonces porque sigue cumpliendo las mismas funciones.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Si queremos entender c&#243;mo musulmanes, cristianos y jud&#237;os negociaron realmente el espacio compartido en el mundo medieval, necesitamos un marco m&#225;s amplio. Egipto pertenece a ese marco. Tambi&#233;n el califato fatim&#237;. Tambi&#233;n las comunidades jud&#237;as del Imperio otomano, los mercaderes cristianos del Cairo mameluco y una docena de casos m&#225;s que el mito de la convivencia ha relegado a los m&#225;rgenes al insistir en que lo ocurrido en C&#243;rdoba y Toledo es la historia que merece contarse.</p>]]></content:encoded></item></channel></rss>