Demas Nwoko’s critique was directed at the imposition of European modernist architecture in Nigeria and in many African countries during the 20th century.

His concern was that the modernist architectural language emerged from climatic, cultural, and social conditions of Europe, not those of Africa.

He is probably right, as I observe the metropolitan cities in Africa, interlayered with its colonial past and present-day adoptions of cookie-cutter cities we see across the globe. From the office tower blocks, residential buildings, and tech centres, all these typologies have a homogenous architectural style that can be situated anywhere in the world.

But isn’t this a sign of development? As some may ask. It depends on the lens you are looking at. What constitutes a country as developed? It might be seen in the country’s economy, infrastructure, and architecture, or, for many African cities, in its likeness to a Western city like London or New York.

As I was thinking about this topic, it took me back to my younger years when I would be excited to receive postcards from friends travelling on holiday, including myself, though it was most likely summer holidays in Ghana. The postcards of a visiting country were always reminiscent of the country’s identity and specific to its geography. In most instances, it was an architectural landmark such as India’s Taj Mahal, Rome’s Colosseum in Italy, or London’s Big Ben in the UK.

In African countries, the postcards would depict either the textiles, arts and crafts, as well as the natural beauty from the coastlines to the waterfalls. Which, in itself, is an identity, but architecturally, it always felt lacklustre because many of the landmarks the country does have were either built during the colonial era or an imitation of an architectural style which is not indigenous to the country of origin.

As many African countries are emerging into redevelopment of their cities, its imperative that as much as they would like to present a developed city to the world, it should be a developed city that is authentically African. An architectural language which is specific to its geography and heritage, with its colour, vibrancy and materiality.

Currently, there is a cognitive dissonance between architecture and geography in Africa which is caused by relentlessly replicating an architectural language void of context, climate and culture.

Not only in Africa

Today, there is evidence of architectural replicas across the globe. These may have been driven by migration, cultural exchange, globalisation and tourism.

My recent poll has shown that people can often identify an architectural style’s geographic origin, regardless of where the building is actually situated.

African Vernacular in UAE

The poll came about when I stumbled upon a post revealing a new architecture at the Al Bridi Nature Reserve in the UAE. I took a glance at the images of what appeared to be African vernacular architecture in an environment resembling an African context, but it wasn’t in Africa.

So, I applied my 3 C’s to the project: Climate, Context, and Culture.

The architecture responds to the local climate, with the thatched roof providing shade and protection from the dry and hot weather.

The new structures appear to integrate well with the site terrain, and the form of the structures correlates with existing contours.

However, the architecture is not indigenous to Emirati culture. Noting that the architectural concept was conceived as part of safari tourism in the Al Bridi Nature Reserve, I can see why the architects adopted the architectural language from Kenyan–style vernacular, where most of their practice experience emerged from and was transplanted into the UAE.

The notion of architectural transplanting intrigued me, so I posed the question on Substack to see which country the people would associate this architectural style with.

Despite the architecture’s location being added at the top of the poll list, many voted for a sub-Saharan country, and it was a close call between Namibia and Kenya.

There were no surprises in the results of the poll at all, as it had shown how strongly we connect specific architectural styles to a continent and a country. It was a reminder that architecture is an identifier of its geography.

So should we call this architectural imitation a success? Considering the architects paid attention to climatic conditions and contextualised the architecture within its surroundings in an effort for an African experience outside of Africa, I guess to a certain extent, it is.

A Chinese-Style Pagoda in the UK

Contrary to this recent architectural appropriation phenomenon, I wanted to trace back to the practice of replicating architectural styles across the globe, and it led me back to my place of birth, London, UK.

The City of London is a melting pot of varying cultures and ethnicities, yet has strongly preserved its quintessentially English heritage. From its iconic landmarks, palaces, red brick architecture to its period Victorian and Georgian houses, London would appear to be homogenous to its heritage until you squint your eye a little and look ever so closely at subtle foreign influences within the construction methods and architectural styles reminiscent of Greek, French and Chinese culture.

Chinese? Yes, the culture of Britons travelling, exploring and invading meant that there was high exposure to different cultures, climates, construction methods and architectural practices. As my senior lecturer at university told me, the best form of education is through travelling. Thus, many British architects travelled the world to study how buildings were designed and constructed.

Many would return inspired to the extent of designing and building an architectural replica in the UK, like the Chinese-style pagoda situated in Kew, the London borough of Richmond upon Thames.

Built in 1762, it was designed by the British Architect Sir William Chambers, who had visited China and other parts of East Asia.

Contrary to the traditional construction of a Pagoda, the Architect chose a material familiar to the English context: brick, as well as other construction modifications which might have simplified the build for an English builder compared to the architectural intricacies of pagoda design in Asia.

Yet, despite the simplified design of the pagoda, the poll presented a result which was correct in the fact that it wasn’t an architectural style synonymous with English architecture, even with the adapted English method of construction.

There is something monumental about pastiche architecture as it’s almost a 1:1 scaled souvenir of the destination you had once visited. It’s like the architect thought, why bring a miniature souvenir of the building when you can build a life-size model?

Turkish Mosque in Ghana

You can find these life-size souvenirs in many cities; at times, it’s an architect’s show-and-tell masterpiece, or it’s gifted between sovereign nations, leaving a lasting impression in the Country throughout the building’s lifespan. With good maintenance, the lifespan could be centuries.

Like this intricately designed mosque in Ghana, built with support from the Turkish Government, the Ghana National Mosque is situated in the heart of Accra, the country’s capital - completed in 2021.

Considering it was funded by the Turkish Government, there are no surprises as to the chosen architectural style resembling the iconic Blue Mosque in Istanbul.

As the second largest mosque in West Africa and in a Country with a majority Christian population, it is most certainly a landmark symbolising Ghana’s religious diversity.

But is it a landmark of Ghana or of Turkey? The poll indicated the latter, as a staggering 75% were convinced that the mosque was associated with Turkey, especially with its Ottoman-style architecture, which is commonly known for its arches, domes and slender minarets. Some might see it as imperialism, while others appreciate its architectural beauty.

It is a stark contrast when we look at Ghana’s 15th-century Larabanga Mosque or even the Great Mosque of Djenné in Mali, both of which are world heritage sites and architecturally associated with Sub-Saharan Africa.

Looking at the scale and magnitude of the National mosque in Ghana, all I see is a missed opportunity to create a contemporary landmark that encapsulates Ghanaian Islamic Vernacular architecture.

I guess Ghana can return the favour and build a Larabanga-inspired Mosque in Turkey…

Above all, one thing remains constant: architecture is synonymous with geography. With the globalisation of the world, there will always be pockets of architectural replicas in cities, but a conscious effort must be made to preserve their architectural identity.

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Conversations around sustainable architecture are often dominated by discussions of new-build developments. Yet far less attention is given to the vast stock of existing buildings which continue to shape our metropolitan cities.

Perhaps one of the most effective ways to reduce embodied carbon is not by delivering new buildings, but by recognising the value of what already exists.

Regardless of the period the building was constructed, its continued use, adaptation, and preservation can play a significant role in creating a more sustainable built environment.

These were the thoughts I had during my visit to Crete and have inspired me to write this article, which I would like to share with you.

Cretan Conservation

During my recent trip to Crete, I stayed in a quaint, old town within the city of Rethymno. Commonly known as Rethymno Old Town, the district is filled with medieval 16th-century Venetian architecture and an array of archaeological sites and landmarks. One of which is a lighthouse said to have been built by the Egyptians during their occupation of the Island in the 19th century.

From the cobbled stone roads to the narrow streets lined with centuries-old stone buildings, it felt as though I had stepped into a time capsule. Walking through these streets was like journeying through history, with every building revealing a glimpse of the civilisation that once thrived there.

Designated conservation areas are common in many cities around the world, even in London, where I am based. However, there was something distinctive about Cretan conservation that drew my attention and curiosity.

Retention and Restoration

In Rethymno, there were relatively few new-build developments. Instead, the City has largely embraced restoration and adaptive reuse, with historic buildings being carefully conserved and repurposed for contemporary uses.

While exploring the town, recurring architectural characteristics began to emerge, reflecting a distinct Cretan architectural style. Many residential buildings, restaurants, and retail premises are constructed from natural stone and are typically finished with lime-based plaster in soft pastel tones. Timber shutters with intricate carvings frame the windows, often matching the design and finish of the entrance doors.

One of the most striking qualities of the Old Town is the consistency of its architectural language. Regardless of a building’s function, whether residential, commercial, or hospitality, there is a remarkable uniformity in construction methods, materials, and finishes. Individuality is instead expressed through subtle variations, such as the choice of exterior wall colour or painted timber shutters.

Beyond their visual appeal, I appreciated how the continued conservation of these buildings preserves architectural features that respond effectively to Crete’s climate. The thick stone walls act as thermal mass, absorbing heat from the intense daytime sun and gradually releasing it during the cooler evenings. This passive design strategy helps maintain comfortable indoor temperatures while reducing the need for mechanical cooling.

Although there are a handful of contemporary Cretan homes, many continue to reference traditional architecture. These modern dwellings are typically constructed with reinforced concrete frames infilled with brick or stone masonry and finished with external plaster, allowing them to retain the appearance and character of traditional Cretan buildings while benefiting from modern construction techniques.

Old Town Buildings, New Purpose

The arched retail shopfronts (with the exception of the Duomo City Store) demonstrate a minimal yet effective approach to the preservation of historic buildings. Arches are a prominent structural and architectural feature of many period buildings in Crete. Beyond their structural function of distributing loads, they serve as architectural thresholds, framing entrances and defining the transition between public and private spaces.

Internally, the retail units have been fitted out to reflect each brand’s identity, making effective use of the generous floor-to-ceiling heights and, in some cases, the existing vaulted ceilings to display merchandise.

Externally, however, the historic character of the buildings has been carefully preserved. The original stone masonry and lime-plastered façades have been retained, complemented by the ornate timber shutters on the upper floors. This sensitive balance between contemporary commercial interiors and the conservation of the historic exterior allows the buildings to remain functional while preserving the architectural character and charm of Rethymno’s Old Town.

Conserved Heritage, Contemporary Hospitality

Many historic buildings possess a grandeur that makes their redevelopment both compelling and challenging. The question is not simply how they can be repurposed, but how new functions can be thoughtfully integrated while preserving the qualities that define their architectural significance.

How can contemporary functions be accommodated within existing spaces without compromising the building's original character, materiality, and spatial integrity?

My stay at Hotel Fortezza in Crete offered a valuable insight into the successful integration of heritage and hospitality. Recently refurbished, the design intervention demonstrated a considered and restrained approach, allowing the historic fabric of the building to remain the primary focus while sensitively adapting it for modern use.

From the bespoke timber-framed entrance doors and windows carefully set within the original arched facades to the exposed double-height timber trusses that define the interior spaces, Hotel Fortezza exemplifies a philosophy of design sensitivity. Rather than competing with the existing architecture, the contemporary interventions complement it, creating a refined hospitality experience that celebrates the building's history while meeting the expectations of current end users.

Returning Reflections: Architectural Conservation and Adaptive Reuse

Upon returning from Crete, I found myself reflecting on my work as an architect and how our profession continues to respond to a changing climate. Interestingly, I am currently involved in the retrofit of period buildings in central London, adapting historic buildings for new hospitality uses, which has become increasingly common across many Western countries.

This experience has sparked a deeper curiosity about architectural preservation beyond familiar contexts. In future notes, I hope to explore conservation practices from across the world, from Africa and Asia to other regions, reviewing exemplary projects that demonstrate how heritage buildings of cultural significance can be sensitively adapted for contemporary life.

More reflections on adaptive reuse, conservation, and the evolving relationship between old and new architecture to come. Stay tuned.

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Sustainability has been at the forefront of discussions within the construction industry in recent years. Much of this conversation has focused on the use of sustainable materials and construction methods to reduce the carbon footprint of buildings and the built environment.

Across Africa, however, architects have increasingly looked beyond material selection and returned to the principles of vernacular architecture as a guide for designing energy-efficient buildings that respond directly to climate, culture, and site-specific conditions. These traditional approaches offer valuable lessons in creating comfortable, resilient spaces with minimal environmental impact.

From observing recently completed projects across the continent, I have identified a set of recurring principles that underpin sustainable architectural design.

While rooted in local contexts, these principles are broadly applicable across a range of building typologies, from residential developments and educational facilities to healthcare and civic infrastructure.

In this article, I will explore these principles and illustrate their application through a selection of exemplary projects from Kéré Architecture and Adjaye Associates.

Thermal Mass Walls

Thermal mass is the ability of a material to absorb heat energy. In the context of a hot-climate country on the African continent, thermal-mass walls would ensure thermal comfort inside the building. Materials such as concrete, brick and stone are commonly used because their high density traps heat from entering the building.

Lately, architects on the continent have been using locally sourced materials as thermal walls, for instance, rammed earth and compressed earth blocks, which are more sustainable than concrete blocks.

The benefits of using earthen thermal walls are the moderate temperatures inside the building, contrasting with the intense heat outside the building.

Brise-Soleils - Perforated Walls

Brise-Soleil, a French term translated as ‘ sun breaker’, is an architectural feature used to manage solar heat gain, resulting in comfort cooling within the building. Perforated walls, in particular, not only block solar radiation and heat, but the apertures also provide natural ventilation through the openings.

These perforated blocks are commonly referred to as breeze blocks in African Countries. At times, African motifs and patterns would be further expressed with the use of the perforated walls, giving it an aesthetic identity homogeneous to its context. It’s magical when the sunlight its filtered through the perforations and patterned shadows begin to emerge. Playful but functional techniques to make any building breathable.

Brise-Soleils - Shading Wall Panels

Vertical or Horizontal Fins set out between window openings prevent solar ingress while maintaining daylight and views. Similar to the operative function of louvred blinds, the fins filter the intensity of the sun, reduce glare and provide shade.

The effectiveness of the fins can be further enhanced by their materiality. For instance, the above image shows vertical fins made up of rammed earth, a material with thermal mass properties. Combining both materiality and technology offers a highly energy efficient facade.

Roof Overhang

Having a generous roof overhang can help protect the building from the harshness of direct sunlight and/or heavy rainfall.

There are so many roof profiles to choose from depending on the performance you want your building to achieve.

In the above image, the roof is raised above the building as a shield from the transference of the sun’s heat penetrating through the underside and entering interior spaces.

Stretching beyond the envelope, the roof overhang creates a shaded canopy around the walkways for cooling.

Roof slopes should also be carefully considered in response to local rainfall patterns. The mono-pitched roof, for instance, directs rainwater runoff in a single direction, allowing drainage to be controlled and managed efficiently. In this case, the roof slopes towards the rear of the building, ensuring that water is directed away from circulation routes and pedestrian areas.

Beyond its environmental performance, the roof is a powerful architectural element capable of shaping a building’s identity. It can define form, establish visual character, and create a strong relationship between architecture, climate, and place.

Courtyard

The courtyard is a typology deeply embedded in the African context. Traditionally used as a space for congregation, social interaction, and community functions, it also serves an important environmental and sustainable role.

Whether formed by a collection of buildings surrounding a central open space or by a void carved within a building mass, courtyards contribute significantly to thermal comfort. The shadows cast by surrounding facades reduce direct solar exposure, creating cooler microclimates that enhance user comfort and reduce reliance on mechanical cooling.

In recent years, however, developers and builders have increasingly prioritised the maximisation of habitable floor area, seeking to ensure that every square metre generates usable accommodation. As a result, courtyards are often enclosed, reduced in size, or omitted entirely. This approach overlooks the fact that habitability is not limited to enclosed spaces. Outdoor environments are equally habitable and play a vital role in supporting social wellbeing, environmental performance, and quality of life.

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Modern Architecture: An Introduction

During the 20th Century, there was a definitive movement which set the precedent for designing buildings today, and it is formally known as Modernism.

You might have associated the term Modernism with architecture, design and the arts. Those were just physical manifestations of core values that emerged from post-World War II and the metropolis’s industrialisation.

The core values were pared back from an elaborate and embellished lifestyle to a consciousness rooted in pragmatism.

In architecture, form was driven by function; architects interplayed the two, delivering varied iterations of modernist buildings. No longer were there ornamental elements adorning buildings and decorative features which served no function. The architectural elements were strictly utilitarian and considered in themselves an aesthetic of function.

Those of us who trained in architecture would have studied the works of the architect Le Corbusier, a notable figure in modernist architecture and considered a pioneer.

Le Corbusier articulated the Five Points of Modern Architecture in 1927, which architects at the time followed religiously when designing buildings of any typology.

Today, we continue to apply the principles either in their entirety or selectively as a basis for designing modern architecture.

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Modernism in Africa

Recently, I have been observing modern architecture in the African continent, and my trained eye could not help but notice the principles being applied. Considering Le Corbusier had designed and delivered buildings in continents with varying climates and conditions, it is proven that the principles model is feasible for all buildings regardless of geographical location.

Modernist Architecture was introduced in the African Continent, particularly, West African Countries like Ghana and Nigeria, in the late 1940’s during colonial rule. It was later contextualised into a new type of African architecture often referred to as Tropical Modernism. The movement continued post-colonial rule and became the architectural signifier of independence and progress.

Although the buildings were predominantly constructed in concrete, steel and glass, which was and still is considered progressive, the architectural language transcends materiality. There is a sense of openness and freedom of expression which resonates and remains relevant to how we design and deliver buildings today in the 21st Century.

African Modernism: Redefined

The surge of development in Africa and renewed interest in vernacular construction have enabled architects on the continent to revisit the principles of modernism. In some instances, modernism is being redefined through the integration of earth-based construction methods.

To outline the principles of New African Modernism, I have chosen the recently completed Kaloki Nyamai Studio, by Adjaye Associates.

1. The Pilotis

   

   Pilotis are structural supports that lift the building above the ground. Constructed from low-carbon concrete and coated with earth plaster, the trunk-like appearance of the columns inhabits the site amongst the trees. This design allows the existing trees and surrounding foliage to remain undisturbed and allows the studio to gently inhabit the forest rather than displacing it.

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2. The Free Plan

Allowing the structure to function independently of the architecture enables the studio to have an open plan for displaying artwork in any configuration.

In this instance, the walls have been positioned at an angle for the artwork to be viewed and appreciated from every direction. Openings in the walls provide access to other spaces and glimpses of the surrounding landscape.

The extruded clerestory windows sited at a high level allow for additional light to flood into the space.

With generous glazing maximising on daylight, sunlight, and views, there is an intentionality to unite the architecture with the surrounding landscape.

3. The Free Earthen Facade

   

   Free facade refers to the external envelope, which appears to float off the ground. The raised earthen volume comprises a low-carbon concrete structure with compressed earth blocks (CEBs) infill and finished with earth plaster.

   Lifting the building above the ground gives the facade a certain lightness, weightlessness when nestled within the existing woodlands.

   Gently cantilevering from the structure, the building’s earthen exterior creates a natural moment of pause along the red clay path leading toward its undercroft.

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4. Horizontal Ribbon Windows

   

   These full-length ribbon windows span from one end to the other, offering a panoramic view of the surrounding landscape. Black fenestration of the windows gives a ‘picture frame’ effect, which draws the eye to focus on the view. A perfect addition to the artwork displayed in the studio.

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5. The Roof Garden

   

   The roof is currently inaccessible. However, this image of the roofscape made me ponder on how incredible it would have been if it were a roof terrace. The only missing elements are the balustrade around the roof edge and a few bench seating areas. Not much is required, as the surroundings alone would have made the roof a spectacle as a viewing platform.

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   Read More: Contemporary Earth Buildings in Africa

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Francis Kéré’s work encompasses cultural and contextual architectural interventions using sustainable construction methods. What truly sets his practice apart is not just his approach to design and construction, but a deep social consciousness rooted in collaboration, community building, and the sharing of knowledge.

I particularly admire his commitment to delivering sustainable community infrastructure projects in his home country, Burkina Faso. Like many African countries, there is a flux between development and modernisation that requires stability, set by a precedent of core principles and sustainable practices.

Founded in 2005, Kéré Architecture focuses on sustainability and community-centred design; by sourcing and utilising local materials and collaborating with local artisans, delivering an architecture specific to the cultural context in which it is built. It is this design ethos that has elevated the practice to international recognition, with notable architectural projects delivered across the globe.

Francis Kéré is listed in the National Geographic 33 for 2026:

How star architect Francis Kéré is designing creative solutions for a rapidly changing world

In this article, I will focus on the practice’s earthen design interventions in the African continent and how the practice has shaped sustainable communities.

From schools and educational facilities to hospitals and clinics, the Burkinabè architect has demonstrated a commitment to delivering a community infrastructure rooted in vernacular African traditions, shaping a sustainable future.

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Gando Primary School, Gando, Burkina Faso (2005)

Kéré Architecture

The ever-growing population of a developing country like Burkina Faso has, in effect, resulted in the urbanisation of its towns and cities. At times, urbanisation is not informed by systems and/or structures due to various factors. It is formed by sporadic developments of self-built homes, creating communities without infrastructure. This is an opportunity for architects, engineers, urban planners, among others, to fill in the gap.

Gando Primary School, Francis Kéré’s first project, exemplifies this, as there has been an underprovision of fit-for-purpose educational facilities in the community. With contextual constraints of resources, environment, materials, and a lack of maintenance culture, Kéré Architecture seized the opportunity to establish good practice with the delivery of sustainable architecture.

Constructed with locally sourced materials, such as clay stabilised with cement, to form the bricks for the external envelope and ceilings, the architecture is modest but purpose-built to provide thermal protection from the hot climate and to provide sufficient natural ventilation through openings for comfort cooling.

Another architectural element that further articulates the building’s design is the overarching roof with a generous overhang, which provides shading and protection from wind-driven rain.

Metal roofing, a common material in many African countries, typically absorbs and retains heat. However, a clever engineering strategy has been employed here: the metal roof surface is supported on an array of roof trusses fixed to the top of the concrete beams, with clay brick infill beneath, helping to seal the building from the elements.

By pulling the metal roof away from the main structure, any heat absorbed from the intense sun is prevented from radiating into the interior, improving thermal comfort within the building.

The modular unit construction of the building, future-proofs the construction for expansion to coincide with the growing population. Not only was Gando Primary School a pilot for school infrastructure in the region, but it had set a precedent for sustainable building practices in the country.

Léo Surgical Clinic and Health Centre, Léo, Burkina Faso (2014)

Kéré Architecture

A hospital typology can be shaped by the following factors:

Culturally, healing centers or traditional medicine practices are often revered over government hospitals; an institution appearing over-scaled and intimidating, particularly for individuals living in remote regions.

Environmentally, the site context surrounding the hospital can contribute to the betterment of communities with natural landscape and gardens promoting healing and wellness.

Accessibility must be inclusive for people of all abilities. Contrarily, in communities outside of the city, such as Léo, access to healthcare is challenging.

Léo Surgical Clinic and Health Centre encompasses a hospital infrastructure indigenous to the town, with a human-scale modular typology reminiscent of African vernacular dwellings.

The architecture is almost domesticated, creating a warm and welcoming environment, unlike the institutionalised environment that standard hospitals often portray, which can at times be unwelcoming for end users.

Similar to the Gando Primary school construction, the primary use of compressed earth blocks (CEBs) for the external envelope, and elongated roof overhangs finished in metal sheets, is not only an implementation of earth- based construction. It is an emergence of an architectural language for building sustainably in the region.

Francis Kéré knew the parameters which informed the construction of many buildings he has delivered in his home country. Material availability is often a challenge with long lead times, shortages, and other factors.

Clay, a natural resource, can be used to maintain the building at a fraction of the cost of constructing it in concrete and glazed panels.

Thinking sustainably is not just the use of sustainable materials, but thinking ahead as to how the architecture can be sustained.

Léo Doctors’ Housing, Léo, Burkina Faso (2018)

Kéré Architecture

Infrastructure expansion is often carried out in parallel with a growing population. At times, developments are phased within a timeframe to meet the needs of a community. Much like the expansion to Leo’s Surgical Clinic and Health Centre, Kéré Architecture also designed and built a housing complex to accommodate the medical staff serving the health facility.

Léo Doctors’ Housing comprises an array of modular units surrounding a central communal courtyard.

The materiality is consistent with the healthcare facility, using compressed earth blocks (CEBs). However, the blocks are double-layered with concrete blocks to form a structurally robust build with thermal massing to retain the interior’s cool temperature. Exteriors are finished with an earth-toned plaster to distinguish them from the hospital typology.

Abstracted from the African round hut archetype, typically conical in shape, Léo Doctors’ Housing has a strong geometric block form tapered to the direction of entry. Interiors are naturally colour-drenched with the fair-faced CEB walls and vaulted ceilings left open-ended for natural ventilation and curtained with bamboo- an ode to the African thatch.

Familiar architectural elements synonymous with a home, such as a porch, a canopy and a front door, further dissociate Léo Doctors’ Housing from the institutionalised environment, typically found in hospital accommodation.

Redefining characteristics of typologies in Africa

When studying the works of Kéré Architecture, I had to reassess my preconceived ideas on architectural typologies. For instance, what are the characteristics of a hospital? A multi-storey, glass facade building with stark white walls and vinyl flooring - are these the definitive characteristics of a hospital?

White walls are often associated with cleanliness, hygiene, and minimalism, among other attributes. As such, many public and residential buildings have white as the predominant finish to their exteriors and interiors. In the works of Kéré Architecture, there is a deliberate omission of white finishes and retention of earth-based materials as the finish. Why? other than taking precedence from the African vernacular architecture or even the aesthetic of a fair-faced finish, maintenance could likely be a factor.

In a developing country like Burkina Faso, an additional budget for maintaining white walls in buildings would most likely be deferred, leaving many buildings in a dire state. The solution is to minimise maintenance by retaining the natural state of the material as the finish. These architectural details can help redefine the characteristics of typologies in Africa.

Shaping Community Infrastructure in Africa is a Community Effort

Working collaboratively with local builders, artisans and community members enabled Francis Kéré to design and deliver an architecture which is not just environmentally sustainable, but sustainable to the community.

Through the transference of knowledge and skills, the community members are empowered not only to maintain the building but to start building themselves.

I can only imagine how the discussion went when Francis Kéré proposed using compressed earth blocks instead of concrete blocks and glass for the new buildings.

Having worked on projects in Africa and with African clients, I have encountered disdain towards architecture that looks remotely vernacular, as it’s seen as primitive and unmodern. This is partly why earth-based construction remains uncommon.

However, with architects like Francis Kéré revisiting these traditional practices, refined with modern design and technology, Africa can reclaim its architectural identity.

Read More: Contemporary Earth Buildings in Africa

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Recently, I had replied to a Note written by on what modern African architecture would look like if we continued using vernacular construction methods. For decades, many African countries have been importing Western construction methods and adopting Western architectural styles in tropical climates. Which meant that the vernacular earth-based construction methods used to build the earliest civilisations on the continent and around the world had long been abandoned. So while many Western countries were finding innovative ways of developing their indigenous construction materials to coincide with their fast-developing construction methods, many African countries were left to find comfort cooling solutions to their overheated concrete homes.

There has been an architectural shift in recent years, where local and international architects of the African diaspora have restored the use of earth-based construction as a response to climate change.

In this article, I will outline 3 architectural projects on the continent where architects have used earth-based construction methods to deliver contemporary African architecture.

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Naimey 2000 Multi-family Housing, Niamey, Niger (2020)

Mariam Issoufou Architects

Niger’s climate is predominantly hot and dry, as a vast portion of the land is situated within the Sahara Desert. Any architectural intervention in a country like Niger would have to address the harsh weather conditions of scorching heat.

This is what Mariam Issoufou Architects implemented when designing the housing complex in Niamey. The practice sought a typology to avoid direct sunlight and provide thermal cooling for the end user.

With references to the cultural context of Niamey and many other ancient cities, such as Timbuktu in Mali and Kano in Nigeria, the building has limited or no openings on the street side and shaded internal courtyards, a technique used to create traditional comfort cooling.

Another technique which aided in providing thermal comfort was the use of earth-based construction. Compressed earth blocks (CEB), equivalent to unfired earth bricks, were used as construction material for the walls and vaulted ceilings. These were made on site using local soil to form the bricks with a colour indigenous to the site.

Finished with Adobe plaster, Naimey 2000 presents an architecture that is monolithic and earthy to complement the Saharan context.

dot.ateliers, Accra, Ghana (2023)

Adjaye Associates

Ghana was one of the African countries with a long-lasting imperialist print in its architectural fabric. From construction methods to materials, all were imported and imposed into the country’s tropical climate. Materials like cement and concrete blocks are considered modern materials and aiding to construct contemporary architecture. While it may be the case, the disadvantage is the high thermal mass property of concrete as it absorbs and stores heat.

Many residential buildings, like my parents’ home, and public buildings are plagued by excessive heat, which becomes unbearable for human comfort. As a result, mechanical interventions are set in place to provide comfort cooling in exchange for high energy consumption.

A sustainable intervention has resurfaced in recent years to find alternative ways of constructing contemporary buildings with higher, if not better, energy efficiency.

Adjaye Associates has consciously incorporated earth-based construction into their architectural projects in the African continent.

Like the recent completion of dot.ateliers, an artist residency - a public space for art lovers has been enveloped with a rammed earth facade over three storeys.

The fair-faced rammed-earth walls are the chosen finish, both internally and externally, standing confidently between neighbouring buildings finished in render and then painted. Earth-based aesthetic in all its natural beauty requires low maintenance, making it a practical and long-lasting choice for sustainable construction.

Concrete is used as an accent material rather than a primary one.

Now, we cannot ignore the presence of concrete elements in the architecture. Clearly, looking at the exterior, concrete was used for structural reinforcement, such as the floor slabs and the roof. There is no denying the fact that concrete has strong structural properties and is the engineers crutch to ensure the building meets modern performance and safety standards. However, the use of the concrete was only used for such purpose and not as the primary material for construction.

What can be appreciated is the expression of these two materials: fair-face rammed earth and the ribbons of fair-faced concrete to form an architectural language. Even in the interiors, the materials are further expressed, with varying rammed earth, concrete and wooden finishes as the interior palette in place of RAL colour paints as finishes to interior walls, floors and ceilings.

The dot.atlelier project is a sculptural expression of materials.

Backyard Community Club (2025)

DeRoche Projects

The restoration of earth-based construction in Africa is just the beginning of reclaiming the continent’s distinct architectural identity. Furthering the development of a restorative practice can be carried out through research and investigation.

In addition to the standard practices for rammed- earth and compressed-earth blocks, a period of exploration and iterations of these building techniques is required to determine the full potential of the material’s performance.

As such, the Backyard Community Club is an example of exploring the performance of rammed-earth techniques for recreational infrastructure.

First of its kind in Ghana, the structure comprises precast rammed-earth panels formed into an enclosure for the tennis court and ancillary spaces.

The beauty of precast systems, regardless of the material, is that the manufacturing processes are carried out offsite and in controlled environments where quality, consistency and structural integrity are ensured.

Another advantage of precast systems is the ability to design complex and non-standard architectural elements, which would have been a limitation if the traditional method of rammed-earth construction were adopted.

With DeRoche Projects’ distinct atypical panel arrayed to form a patterned enclosure would not have been possible if the panels were constructed in situ.

What the practice has demonstrated is the design informing the material and not the other way round, which is often the case when we only focus on limitations and not on innovation.

Read more: Architect Francis Kéré: Shaping Sustainable Communities in Africa

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Red brick is one of the most familiar and enduring materials in architecture. Associated with industrial heritage, civic institutions, and domestic buildings, it is often perceived as traditional, repetitive, and restrained. Yet within this apparent simplicity lies an extraordinary capacity for experimentation.

Through variation in bonding patterns, relief, geometry, perforation, and structural expression, architects have continually reinterpreted red brick, producing facades that challenge expectations and push the material beyond its conventional role.

Read on to examine three buildings I have chosen as case studies in exploring the potential of the humble red brick:

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Mausoleum Thomas Sankara, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

Kéré Architecture

The beauty of Kéré Architecture’s mausoleum lies in its use of locally sourced laterite and clay bricks. The materials were gathered from the surrounding region, with local communities involved in sourcing the clay for the site.

Clay and laterite bricks are produced by extracting local soil, mixing it with water, moulding or pressing it into brick forms, and then drying the units before construction.

The clay and laterite bricks were used with great care to construct the building’s unique shapes and curves. Their tactile qualities allow the material to follow gentle arcs and complex forms, resulting in a facade that feels both handcrafted and fluid, while maintaining the warmth and richness characteristic of traditional brickwork.

Aga Khan Academy Dhaka, Bangladesh

Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios with architecture studio Shatotto Architecture for Green Living.

What fascinates me about this building is how it pays homage to locally manufactured brickwork and traditional craftsmanship.

Building on local traditions and artisanal expertise, the design developed unique motifs and patterns in brickwork, establishing an architectural language that highlights the skill and artistry inherent in the craft.

An example would be the Jali screen detailing, which is the use of perforated brick lattice that filters light and air. The contemporary interpretation of a vital local tradition connects the building to its cultural and material context.

A jali screen is a perforated or latticed architectural screen, traditionally made from stone, wood, or sometimes metal, featuring intricate geometric or floral patterns.

The Grand Mulberry Apartments, Brooklyn, United States

Morris Adjmi Architects

Finally, but certainly not least, the custom dome-shaped bricks used in The Grand Mulberry to define the building’s distinctive façade.

The traditional red brick façade is further articulated through the use of dome-shaped bricks, which introduce subtle variation across the surface. These protruding forms create a play of light and shadow, giving the building added texture and depth while enriching the overall visual character of the facade.

Different sections of the façade use the dome bricks in varying ways. At the lower level, they form horizontal bands that add rhythm to the wall surface, while at the upper level the protruding bricks create subtle arches that define the windows.

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To mark International Women’s Day, Beckenham Place Mansion opened its doors to a vibrant community market celebrating the creativity, talent and entrepreneurship of women in the local area.

Organised in collaboration with the local council, the event brought together a range of independent traders, artists and makers, transforming the historic mansion into a lively showcase of small businesses and handmade crafts. Visitors browsed stalls featuring jewellery, ceramics, textiles and other artisan goods, each representing the work and vision of women building their own ventures.

Among the displays were handcrafted clay earrings and delicate porcelain pottery pieces that quickly caught my attention and found their way home with me. Like many of the items on sale, they reflected the individuality and care that often distinguishes independent makers from mass-produced retail.

While the market itself was a highlight, the setting proved just as striking. The event took place inside the Grade II listed Georgian mansion, a building whose architectural beauty continues to impress visitors. With its grand rooms, high ceilings and historic character, the mansion served as a fitting backdrop for a celebration of creativity and enterprise.

Share Notes by Meli

Large period buildings of this scale are increasingly repurposed as museums or wedding venues. While these uses preserve their heritage, it was refreshing to see the space animated differently; filled with local traders, community members and visitors supporting independent businesses.

Events like this do more than simply offer a place to shop. In a retail landscape often dominated by big brands and high street chains, small-scale businesses can struggle for visibility. Community markets provide a vital platform for entrepreneurs to showcase their work, connect with customers and sustain their craft.

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My first visit to Bicester Village felt oddly ceremonial. A place I’d heard about long before I ever went — part recommendation, part myth.

The architecture is the first thing to pull you in. But the …

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