The underlying cause for all of them was generally an uprising by the enslaved class of people for freedom and dignity due to their exploitation by those of the societies profiting from their condition and abuse(”slave rebellions”. Encyclopedia Britannica). Which brings us to today’s example of a slave rebellion. A rebellion that was even featured in the video game, Assassin’s Creed Mirage(Assassin’s Creed MirageUbisoft). The Zanj Rebellion, which shook the Abbasid Caliphate.

The Zanj and Slavery:

The rebellion we’re exploring today is known as Zanji Rebellion. A rebellion that occurred in 869–883 CE in southern Iraq(beginning near Basra) and Iran’s neighboring Khuzestan province(”Zanj rebellion”. Encyclopedia Britannica). During the Abbasid caliphate, being one of the dynasties of the great Islamic Empire, it being the one that replaced the Umayyad caliphate in 750 CE lasting until it was destroyed by the Mongol invasion in 1258. With the surviving branch in Mamluk Egypt until its fall to the Ottomans in 1517(Khan(2020)/Bosworth(1996)p.6–10).

It was during the Abbasid Caliphate, that the Zanj Rebellion had happened. A revolt between 869–883 CE, principally of both freed and enslaved Blacks or people of African descent, refer to as Zanj, joined by disgruntled Arab tribes, such as the Banu Tamim and Banu Asad. Due to the harsh working conditions and mistreatment under the landowners of the marshlands in southeastern Iraq near Basra(”Zanj rebellion”. Encyclopedia Britannica/What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem/Kennedy 2004, p.178).

However the rebellion was centered on the Zanj, the freed and enslaved Blacks or people of African descent. Who were a key component in the institution of Slavery during the Abbasid Caliphate and prior, as East Africans were being transported as far back as the 1st century CE. Primarily across the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean(Freamon(2019)p.79-83). As the Zanj would initially refer to Africans of southeastern coast of Africa, known as the Swahili coast and other neighboring Bantu people speaking peoples, however the term later became a collective term for all Africans by Arab sources(Bagley, F. R. C.; et al. (1997)p. 174/Ali(2022)).

One of primary modern day descendants of the Zanj are the Afro-Iraqis of southeastern Iraq, representing one of the groups of the region descended from the legacy of slave trading within the region(Al-Azraki,& Yaqoob(2023)).

(For more on the Indian Ocean Slave trade please check the previous article listed below).

Slavery and the slave trade had been a going on across the region as far back as Sumer during the 3rd Dynasty of Ur around 2100 BCE(Roth & Hoffner(1997)p.13-22). In the case of the Abbasid Caliphate, they were continuing a practice from the previous Umayyad and Rashidun Caliphates and previous empires. However the nature behind the condition of the Zanj and other slaves in southern Iraq around Basra was that they were being utilized for the purpose of by large landowners for the purpose of draining the salt marshes east of Basra, for agricultural purposes, such as sugarcane cultivation while extracting potassium nitrate or saltpeter prior in order to help the soil to become more suitable for agriculture. Turning more profit for the landowners(“Zanj rebellion”. Encyclopedia Britannica/What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem/Rodriguez 2007, p. 585).

The work and living conditions the Zanj were under was grueling, difficult, and miserable along with the poor treatment they had received from their owners(What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem/Popovic 1999, p.12–13, 23–25/McKinney 2004, p.465/Lewis 2002, p.112–13/Nöldeke 1892, p.148–49). Despite at least two earlier revolts(689–90CE & 694CE) having taking place, but had faded quickly(Popovic 1999, p.22–23). However by 869 CE this attempt would be noticeably different.

Leading to Rebellion.

During the lead up to the Zanj Rebellion, the Abbasid Caliphate, had just weathered a number of internal upheavals that threatened its own stability. Such as the Anarchy at Samarra(861-70 CE) between rival claimants of the title Caliph and military factions, while from 866-896 CE the Kharijite Rebellions were taken place(Kennedy 2004, p.169 ff.,177–78/Popovic 1999, p.25–29). As these two destabilizing events had just concluded at the start of the Zanj Rebellion(Anarchy at Samarra) or was happening alongside the Rebellion itself(the Kharijite Rebellions). Opening an opportunity for those abused and exploited in the Iraqi marshlands to be rallied and take arms. As they would be by one key but mysterious figure who would be seen as a key leader or pillar of the Zanj Rebellion itself. Ali ibn Muhammad.

Who was Ali ibn Muhammad:

Ali ibn Muhammad in terms of who he was prior to leading the Zanj Rebellion, is a bit of mystery, due to the nature of the accounts, contemporary historians, and along with historians of the time detesting him(What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem). For example Ali ibn Muhammad’s origins have been stated between him being tied to two of the Arab tribes of the region, the Abd al-Qays and the Banu Asad. While being born in either Tehran, Rayy, or Warzanin in Persia, modern Iran(What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem /Yarshater(1992)p.29–31/Campbell(2016). p.281/Grant(2022)30: 575).

Another interesting part of Ali’s history prior to the Zanj Rebellion, he was involved in a number of internal conflicts against the Caliphate. In gaining a following due to the claim of his descent to Ali ibn Talib, friend of the Prophet Muhammad, and husband to his daughter, Fatima through their grandson, Zayd ibn Ali. While also tying himself to the Shia branch of Islam several different times. From the eastern Arabian peninsula, to Baghdad, and Basra especially(Waines 1992, p.30–33; Popovic 1999, p. 35–36, 38–39/Talhami 1977, p.453–54).

It would be in southern Iraq, near Basra in 869, when Ali ibn Muhammad would gain his opportunity. Due to present conditions of internal unrest, Ali would begin making his appeals to the Black slaves, the Zanj, to follow him. Particularly after inquiring about their condition before beginning his campaign in recruiting the Zanj and other slaves under the banner of wealth status and security. Gaining the title Sāhib az-Zanj. Or “Chief of the Zanj”. However with his movement’s incorporation of religious aspects and the egalitarian doctrine of the concurring rebelling Kharijites, whether slogans, banners, and/or inscriptions such as “that the most qualified man should reign, even if he was an Abyssinian slave” and “God is great, God is great, there is no God but God, and God is great; there is no arbitration except by God(What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem /Talhami 1977, p.455/Waines 1992, p.36/Walker 1933, p.651 ff).” With his push for better treatment of Zanj, Ali was gaining followers from other backgrounds ranging from freed Blacks, clients of prestigious families, craftsmen, workers, small farmers and Bedouins who lived in the region near Basra(What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem /Talhami 1977, p.455/Enslaved Africans, an uprising and an ancient farming system in Iraq: study sheds light on timelines. By Peter J. Brown, Durham University).

Ali ibn Muhammad according to his contemporaries, such as Al-Tabari(author of Annals of Prophets and Kings) would go as far and gathered slaveowners from raids before an audience, castigating them in front of their slaves and former slaves. Going as far has having many of the slaveowners publicly whipped. Though interestingly Ali has not been documented as being for the abolition of slavery, as one of the promises attributed to him was that his followers would be able to enslave their former masters(What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem).

With the raids, public displays about the abuses of the current system, prexisting internal strife and thousands of committed followers, led by a charismatic leader with claims of religious authority and pedigree. The Zanj Rebellion would begin in September of 869 CE. Shaking an already unstable empire(Popovic 1999, p.10/What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem ).

The Rebellion:

By September of 869 CE, the regions of southern Iraq near Basra and Iran’s Khuzestan province of the then Abbasid Caliphate were in rebellion. The Zanj, following after Ali ibn Muhammad had gotten under way and will rage for the next 14 years. By combating the Abbasid government through guerrilla warfare by launching raids upon military encampments(often at night), seizing weapons, raiding towns and villages, taking supplies such as food and horses, while also freeing fellow slaves(Popovic 1999, p.10/Waines 1992, p. 36, 55, 59, 109, 110, 111, 121–22, 126, 132, 138, 140, 195, 198/Kennedy 2004, p.178).

The Zanj Rebellion had two significant theaters. The Al-Ahwaz/Khuzestan theater in Iran and southern Iraq with Basra being the center(Popovic 1999, p.10). In these theaters of operations, the Zanj forces managed to secure control over both regions through the capture of major cities such as Al-Ubulla, Suq al-Ahwaz and Basra itself. Coupled with the Abbasid government’s forces inability to counter them, the Zanj’s success spread fear amongst the population of these regions causing many to flee. Despite the seesaw for control over Suq al-Ahwaz prior to the rebellion’s end(Waines 1992, p.38 ff., 108 ff., 120 ff., 136, 137 ff., 152, 156, 158, 164/Popovic 1999, p.45–72/McKinney 2004, p.464–66/Nöldeke 1892, p.152–62).

Whether the Zanj was on the offensive or put on the defensive, they would engage in administrative action within their areas of operation that helped increase their strength. Which included the construction of fortresses, a navy for traversing the canals and rivers of the region, taxation of territories under their control, the minting of their own currency and their own capital city, Al-Mukhtarah(Popovic 1999,p.81,130–39/Kennedy 2001, p.154/McKinney 2004, p. 468/What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem).

This also includes the Zanj securing peace agreements with some of the villages in the region. Further strengthening their control and ability to maintain their revolt against the Caliphate. Meanwhile those who resisted them were attacked and sometimes outright destroyed. Such as Basra in 871 during the rebellion after the siege it was under(Popovic 1999,p.45–72/McKinney 2004, p.464–66).

There were several attempts by the Abbasid government to retake the initiative and suppress the Zanj. Including a counteroffensive in 872 against the Zanj led by prince, Abu Ahmad ibn al-Mutawakkil(better known as Al-Muwaffaq) that had ended in failure(Popovic 1999,p.45–72/McKinney 2004, p.464–66). This was compounded by the Abbasid Caliphate, having to divert resources to counter the invading Saffarids, led by Ya’qub ibn al-Layth from Afghanistan, which in turn resulted in the Zanj reaching their greatest extent by 879 with Wasit and Ramhurmuz being sacked and the Zanj becoming only within 50 miles of Baghdad(Popovic 1999, p.72–82/McKinney 2004, p.466/Gordon 2001, p.142/Bosworth,”SAFFARIDS.” Encyclopaedia Iranica).

However this too would be the year that Abbasid would begin to regain the initiative, after their decisive victory against Ya’qub ibn al-Layth at the Battle of Dayr al-Aqul and his death from an illness that year. The Abbasid’s position further improved as Ya’qub’s, successor had agreed to favorable terms. Resulting in the Caliphate in being able to concrete on Zanj(Bonner 2010, p.316/Özaydın 2016, p.327).

The End of the Rebellion:

Due to the renew Abbasid offensive, under Al-Muwaffaq and his son, prince Abu al-’Abbas(the future Caliph al-Mu’tadid). The Zanj began to suffer critical defeats in succession leading to the retaking of the regions of Wasit and the Batihah(Popovic 1999, p.91).

By January of 881, Al-Muwaffaq had set out from Wasit and started his advance upon nearby Al-Ahwaz in Iran. With the Zanj position in Iraq and their capital al-Mukhtarah becoming increasingly threatened, the leadership organized a withdraw from Al-Ahwaz and other villages in the region. Resulting in the reestablishment of Abbasid authority in the region(Popovic 1999, pp. 99–102).

By mid February of 881 the sieged of Al-Mukhtarah had begun and it would last until August of 883(Popovic 1999, p.91–122/McKinney 2004, p.468/What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem). The siege was a fierce back and forth between Ali ibn Muhammad and Zanj against Al-Muwaffaq’s forces. As by the time of the siege most of Zanj forces and commanders, such as Sulayman ibn Jami’, Sulayman ibn Musa, ‘Ali ibn Aban, and ‘Ali’s son Ankalay, had returned to defend Al-Mukhtarah(Popovic 1999, p.102).

Al-Muwaffaq despite being wounded during the battle, had been consistent throughout the siege in offering amnesty and safety to those who voluntarily surrendered even to the Zanji leadership. As those who had accepted received the promise safely & rewards, while those who didn’t were killed, decapitated, with their heads displayed in sight of the remaining defenders(Popovic 1999, p.100–01/What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem).

The western side of Al-Mukhtarah had fallen to government forces in the Spring of 883, the east in the August of that year. Ending the nearly 15 year rebellion as Ali ibn Muhammad and other defending rebels were killed in the final assault by Abbasid forces(Popovic 1999, p.102/What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem/“Zanj rebellion”. Encyclopedia Britannica).

Aftermath:

After the fall of Al-Mukhtarah, the Zanj were finally defeated by Al-Muwaffaq’s forces. Who then send message across the Muslim world that the rebellion had been defeated. Informing the displaced residents of Basra, al-Ubulla, the Tigris districts, and al-Ahwaz that they could safely return to their homes. Meanwhile in the November of 883, Abu al-’Abbas would host a public victory celebration through Baghdad. As he led his troops in a procession that included the head of Ali ibn Muhammad, like many of the other rebel commanders that had fallen during the war(Popovic 1999, p.121-23/Marozzi (2025)p.75–76/What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem ).

The leaders that had surrendered such as Ankalay, ‘Ali ibn Aban, Sulayman ibn Jami’, and Sulayman ibn Musa, along with Ali ibn Muhammad’s remaining family were brought and held in Baghdad(Popovic 1999, p.121-23). While several of the Zanj soldiers that had surrendered and were pardoned were welcomed into the service of the victorious Caliphate(Popovic 1999, p.100–01/What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem ).

However the devastation from the war was staggering. As casualties according to contemporary historians varied widely, such as Al-Suli and Ibn al-Taqtaqi gave figures between 1.5-2.5 million while Al-Tabari just noted that the number of killed and wounded soldiers numbered in the hundreds to thousands. Make it difficult to determine the accuracy for modern historians but clear that the Rebellion was a significant event(McKinney 2004, p.468–69/Waines 1992, p.51, 55–56, 123,147/Popovic 1999, p.154).

Part of the reason for such a disparity was due to the level and impact of the Rebellion as both militaries had been charged with destroying and burning cities, towns, and critical infrastructure(bridges, roads, canals, agriculture) along with seizing food and other resources to avoid its use by enemy forces. Alongside the massacre or execution of captives.(Waines 1992, p.110–11, 132, 152, 183, 204/Popovic 1999, p.153–54/McKinney 2004, p.465/Nöldeke 1892, p.158).

The Rebellion would ultimately would result in Ali ibn Muhammad being referred to as “the enemy of God” and “the cursed one” by historians of the period(What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem ). Meanwhile though a number of enslaved members of the Zanj, who had accepted the terms of surrender would be freed and even go on to serve in the army of Al-Muwaffaq(What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem). Slavery would continue being an institution in the region long after the fall of Abbasids. Primarily of Africans or those of African descent until after the fall of Ottoman Empire and in the aftermath of World War II would many of the nations of the Middle East had gained their independence and officially abolished slavery in a long process(Lewis(1990) p.40/Gordon 1989, p. 234/Beigbeder (2006) p.42/DeAntonis, Nicholas J. (2021)/Miers, S.(2003) 254).

Though in the 21st century the exploitation of migrant workers and human trafficking by terrorists groups help keep slavery going in the region and in other countries across the world(Gibson (2014).The Guardian/Hill(2014).Combating Terrorism Center at West Point/ Markoe(2013).The Huffington Post).

Ending Remarks:

Thank you all for time in reading this fascinating event in history. The Zanj Rebellion, along with many others like it, are very noteworthy events in history that deserves our attention, with proper research and understanding. For more about the Zanj Rebellion and related topics covered here today please check out my Bibliography section down below.

Bibliography: Zanj Rebellion-Wiki

Al-Ahwaz theater (Zanj Rebellion)Wiki

Iraq theater (Zanj Rebellion)Wiki

What Was the Zanj Rebellion? JSTOR, By Mohammed Elnaiem

Britannica Editors. “Zanj rebellion”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 19 Sep. 2018, https://www.britannica.com/event/Zanj-rebellion. Accessed 10 August 2026.

A rare coin at the British Museum helps tell the story of a bloody slave rebellion and the people who forged a fleeting sovereignty. By Awet Teklehimanot Araya

Zanj Revolt of African Slaves: EBSCO

Enslaved Africans, an uprising and an ancient farming system in Iraq: study sheds light on timelines. By Peter J. Brown, Durham University

Enslaved Africans led a decade-long rebellion 1,200 years ago in Iraq, new evidence suggests

Zanj rebellion and enslaved Africans: new study reshapes history of ancient farming in Iraq by Dario Radley

Zanj Revolt of African Slaves by Sizgorich, Thomas

Norton, Holly Kathryn (2013). Estate by Estate: The Landscape of the 1733 St. Jan Slave Rebellion(PhD). Syracuse University. p. 90.

Britannica Editors. “Third Servile War”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 11 Sep. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/event/Gladiatorial-War. Accessed 11 August 2026.

Britannica Editors (2026, August 1). Haitian Revolution. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Haitian-Revolution

Britannica Editors. “slave rebellions”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 Jan. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/topic/slave-rebellions. Accessed 11 August 2026.

Khan, S. M. (2020, March 25). Abbasid Dynasty. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Abbasid_Dynasty/

Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1996). “The ‘Abbasid Caliphs”. The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press.p.6–10.

Kennedy, Hugh (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (Second ed.). Pearson Education Ltd. p.169 ff., 177–78.

Freamon, Bernard K. Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. (2019) p.79-84

Bagley, F. R. C.; et al. (1997). The Last Great Muslim Empires. Brill. p. 174

Ali, Adam, ‘Zanj Revolt in the Abbasid Caliphate (Iraq)’ (28 Jan. 2022), in Thomas Spear (ed.), Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History (New York, NY, online edn, Oxford Academic, 27 Feb. 2017 - ), https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.933, accessed 12 Aug. 2026.

Al-Azraki, A & Yaqoob, T. (2023). Afro-Iraqi Rituals: Stigma, Discrimination, and Resilience. the Black Theatre Review, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.2458/tbtr.5149

Roth, M. T., & Hoffner, H. A. (1997). Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor (P. Michalowski, Ed.). The Society of Biblical Literature. p.13-22 https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.25577265

Rodriguez, Junius P., ed. (2007). “Zanj Slave Revolts”. Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion, Volume 2. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 585.

Popovic, Alexandre (1999). The Revolt of African Slaves in Iraq, in the 3rd/9th Century. Trans. Léon King. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers. p.10, 12–13, 23–29, 35–36, 38–39, 45–82, 91–123, 130–39

McKinney, Robert C. (2004). The Case of Rhyme versus Reason: Ibn al-Rumi and His Poetics in Context. Leiden and Boston: Brill. p.464–66

Lewis, Bernard (2002). The Arabs in History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.112–13

Nöldeke, Theodor (1892). Sketches from Eastern History. Trans. Charles John Sutherland Black. London and Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black. p.148–49, 152–62

Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. (1992). The History of al-Tabari, Volume XXXVI: The Revolt of the Zanj, A.D. 869–879/A.H. 255–265. Translated by Waines, David. Albany: State University of New York Press. p.29–31.

Campbell, Gwyn (2016). “East Africa in the Early Indian Ocean World Slave Trade: The Zanj Revolt Reconsidered”. In Campbell, Gwyn (ed.). Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. p.281. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33822-4_12.

Grant, Philip (2022). “Entangled Symbols: Silk and the Material Semiosis of the Zanj Rebellion (869–83)”. Al-Usur al-Wusta. 30: 575. doi:10.52214/uw.v30i.9394.

Talhami, Ghada Hashem (1977). “The Zanj Rebellion Reconsidered”. The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 10 (3): 443–461. doi:10.2307/216737.

Waines, David, ed. (1992). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXXVI: The Revolt of the Zanj, A.D. 869–879/A.H. 255–265. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. p.30-33, 36, 38, 55, 59, 108, 109, 110, 111, 120–22, 126, 132, 136-138, 140, 152, 156, 158, 164 195, 198

Walker, John (July 1933). “A Rare Coin of the Zanj”. The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 65 (3): 651–655. doi:10.1017/S1356186300500066

Gordon, Matthew S. (2001). The Breaking of a Thousand Swords: A History of the Turkish Military of Samarra (A.H. 200–275/815–889 C.E.). Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. p.142

Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. “SAFFARIDS.” Encyclopaedia Iranica. Published January 1, 2000. https://doi.org/10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_10647

Marozzi, Justin (2025). Captives and Companions: A History of Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Islamic World. Simon and Schuster. p.75–76.

Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 40

Beigbeder, Yves (2006). Judging War Crimes and Torture: French Justice and International Criminal Tribunals and Commissions (1940–2005). Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 42.

DeAntonis, Nicholas J. (2021). Emancipating ‘The Unfortunates’: The Anti-slavery Society, the United States, the United Nations, and the Decades-Long Fight to Abolish the Saudi Arabian Slave Trade(Thesis). Fordham Research Commons.

Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. 254

Murray Gordon. ‘Slavery in the Arab World’, New York: New Amsterdam, 1989, p. 234.

Gibson, Owen (18 February 2014). “More than 500 Indian Workers Have Died in Qatar Since 2012, Figures Show”. The Guardian.

Hill, Jonathan N.C. (July 30, 2014). “Boko Haram, the Chibok Abductions and Nigeria’s Counterterrorism Strategy”. Combating Terrorism Center at West Point.

Lauren Markoe (24 September 2013). “Muslim Scholars Release Open Letter to Islamic State Meticulously Blasting Its Ideology”. The Huffington Post. Religious News Service.

McLeod, Nicholas C., “Race, rebellion, and Arab Muslim slavery : the Zanj Rebellion in Iraq, 869 - 883 C.E.” (2016). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 2381.
https://doi.org/10.18297/etd/2381

Image: Unknown artist, Slave Dealers and Slaves – A Street Scene in Zanzibar. Engraving, 1873. Photo © National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London./https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/zanj-rebellion-ancient-coin-reveals-fight-freedom

Image: A 19th-century engraving depicting an Arab slave-trading caravan transporting black African slaves across the Saharavia Wikimedia Commons/https://daily.jstor.org/what-was-the-zanj-rebellion/

Image: Zanj Rebellion; an sculpture by Ahmad Barakizadeh. Credit: Ahmad Barakizadeh / CC BY-SA 4.0/https://archaeologymag.com/2025/08/zanj-rebellion-and-enslaved-africans/

Image: An Arab slave ship in the Red Sea in the 1500s or 1600s. New York Public Library/https://theconversation.com/enslaved-africans-an-uprising-and-an-ancient-farming-system-in-iraq-study-sheds-light-on-timelines-262977?utm_medium=article_clipboard_share&utm_source=theconversation.com

Image: A photo taken from a drone showing remains of part of the canal system in what is now Iraq. (Image credit: Image courtesy of Peter Brown)/https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/enslaved-africans-led-a-decade-long-rebellion-1-200-years-ago-in-iraq-new-evidence-suggests

Anarchy at SamarraWiki

Kharijite Rebellions (866–896)Wiki

Assassin’s Creed MirageUbisoft

Assassin’s Creed MirageWiki

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During this period the ancient peoples of what is now modern day Libya, Sudan, Egypt, had entered in a new era. As Ancient Egypt had reunited under 11th Dynasty pharaoh, Mehuhotep II. Ended the 1st Intermediate period and beginning Egypt’s Middle Kingdom period(Mark(2016)First Intermediate Period of Egypt/Mark(2026). Middle Kingdom of Egypt). While to Egypt’s south in modern Sudan, the Kingdom of Kerma had been a stable power along the Nile, that the Egyptians will have to be more mindful of. Meanwhile the ancient Libyans during this period according to the available evidence haven’t moved into their version of an early nation state, at least akin to Egypt and Kerma’s early development.

This leads us to how we will currently approach our 3 Neighbors of northeast Africa during this period. Due to the nature of the materials attesting to the residents of ancient Libya being primarily from Egyptian sources(again sadly), this time around we’ll puzzle out more on the ancient Libyans during our the focus on the Egyptian side of our journey. In short the chief points of focus in this period will be the Kingdom of Kerma(the forerunner to Kush), and Egypt.

Not only due to the availability of evidence and sources but the nature of their relationship with each other will have a profound impact on not only on themselves but the entire region as well. So let’s dive into the Kingdom of Kerma during the Middle Kingdom period.

The Kingdom of Kerma at 2000 BCE:

Before addressing the nature of the Kingdom of Kerma, let’s identify what the Middle Kingdom era truly is. The Egyptian Middle Kingdom period is a time of Egypt’s reunification, generally considered to have span from the second half of the 11th dynasty and ending between the 13th and 14th dynasties. Consisting of advancements of Egyptian art, architecture and literature along with extensive trade and cultural exchanges(Mark(2026). Middle Kingdom of Egypt/Dr. Amy Calvert,2022).

It is during this period that we see evidence that though the Egypt state was reunited under a strong central government with capable leadership, the Kingdom of Kerma was seen a both a serious political rival and economic partner(DeMola(2013)).

How these two kingdoms saw each other as political rivals and potential threats, could be best seen with the fortifications built inside the region of Nubia, that they both shared or exerted influence over. The north, Lower Nubia, once again under Egyptian hegemony, while the south, Upper Nubia under the influence of the Kingdom of Kerma(Phillips(2005)p.756–758/Edwards(2004)p. 2,75, 77–78).

The need for such a number of Egyptian forts in Lower Nubia(at least four)indicates a need for security. However this security need falls under two categories. Security for trade and transport against potential threats from thieves or raiders. This would be considered economic security, the other being national security in guarding Egyptian interests at its southern border against Kerma(DeMola(2013)/Dirminti, E. (2014)).

More evidence for this trade consists of the presence of Lower and Upper Egyptian and Mediterranean styles of pottery in Kerma, while tombs and sites in Qau el-Kebir, Meir, and Assiut towards central and northern Egypt, contains motifs and paintings with artistic influences imported from the Kerma culture. As Kerma would develop their own Kerma-ware pottery tradition while producing their own style of items made of silver and ivory.(DeMola(2013)/Fletcher, 2016, p.155).

Along with processing and trading with the Egyptians livestock, milk products, ebony, incense, exotic animals, hard and precious stones and other items from deeper within Africa, but gold especially(Bonnet(2003)p.16–26/DeMola(2013)/Fletcher, 2016, p.155).

(More on sites like Buhen at a later time).

As gold held great importance in ancient Egyptian society. With the earliest mentioning of gold occurring in Egypt’s 1st dynasty(c.3150-2890 BCE), while the earliest surviving gold artifacts are from at least the Predynastic period(Mark(2016) First Dynasty/Jestice 2023,p.11, 24/Schorsch(2017)). Even the Egyptian word for gold, Nbw, or nub, is possibly being the basis for the name of Nubia. Due to the availability of this precious metal in the south inside the region of Nubia(DeMola(2013)/The History of Ancient NubiaUChicago). As gold amongst the Ancient Egyptians, was believed to be skin or flesh of the gods, with silver being their bones(Meeks & Favard-Meeks 1996, p.55–59).

These economic interests of both Kerma and Egypt ultimately resulted in Nubia and its people being split between Egypt to the north and Kerma to the south(Nubia. Encyclopedia Britannica),but with both kingdoms having strong military presences in the region. Due to this lucrative trade relationship being a necessity to their respective nations. Resulting in the need of the forts being established in Upper Egypt and at town of Saï(https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/anthropology/kerma-kingdom-rules-nubia), serving as the border of Upper Nubia and Kerma’s chief northern gateway(it would become very important in later conflicts between Kerma & Egypt). Serving the national security purpose of projecting both kingdoms ability to protect their interests and territorial integrity towards each other.

Because during Egypt’s First Intermediate period(Mark(2016)First Intermediate Period of Egypt), Kerma’s influence had stretched not only up into Lower Nubia but to Aswan in Upper Egypt itself, resulting in a later reunified Egypt reasserting its influence into Lower Nubia(Phillips (2005)p.762/DeMola(2013)).

Another one of the interesting aspects of their interactions actually comes from Egyptian records. Particularly those of the military campaigns of the Pharaohs Mentuhotep II(the 11th dynasty pharaoh who reunited Egypt, beginning the Middle Kingdom period), Amenemhat I, in the biography of Khnumhotep I, a nomarch(governor) who served under him, Senusret I, Amenemhat II and others(Callender(2000)p.140/Grajetzki,2009, p.113-14/Simpson 1984, p. 895/Grajetzki 2006, p.45–46). In which these pharaohs engaged in campaigns to bring and secure Egyptian control over Lower Nubia, while deterring or pushing back the influence of the Kingdom of Kerma(DeMola(2013)/ Phillips(2005)p.756–758/Edwards(2004)p. 2,75, 77–78).

What is truly fascinating about Egypt and Kerma engaging in these economic and national security methodologies, is with just the information we have gathered so far, we see that the Kingdom of Kerma, sometimes called the first kingdom of Kush(DeMola(2013)/Dirminti, E.(2014)/The British MuseumKush 2021), was a regional power that the Ancient Egyptians viewed both as a valuable trade partner and political rival.

This evidence along with the evidence we have encountered in the previous articles of our journey(see below) that the earlier assumptions of Kerma(which would include Nubia and Kush especially) being that it and the civilizations that arose around it was an Egyptian offshoot due to late 19th and early 20th century ideas of African peoples was entirely wrong(Morkot(2000)p.24/Gatto (2011)21–29).

That with Kerma and Egypt sharing(or utilizing) the land of Nubia between them, it played significant in both civilizations’s development. Through trade(ivory, pottery, animals, gold, ebony, slaves, copper etc), the exchange of ideas(ex.metallurgy, pottery styles, art), and warfare.(DeMola(2013)/Dirminti, E.(2014)/Kaiser (1976)/Honegger(2023)/Walsh(2018)20. 31-51).

Inside of Kerma’s Kingdom:

One of the most significant elements of Kerma’s status as a key power, was that by the start of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom period, Kerma had entered into its Middle Kerma phase(Kerma, Anthropology ). Becoming a developed and principled urban center on its side of the upper Nile. Thanks in part to archaeological excavations, especially by the team led by Charles Bonnet, during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The efforts of his team had revealed this urban landscape about Kerma. That by 2000 BCE there were numerous houses, workshops, palaces and more, from examining the remains of these sites foundations(Grzymski, K. (2008)).

Another facet that Kerma and Egypt both share was their use of a blue glazed pottery or faience style ceramics, that utilize copper oxide and quartz in their manufacture(Spedding,2025). Most famously known as Egyptian Blue, currently the oldest known synthetic pigment(Kovalev,Rodler,Brøns, Rehren,2023).

Because Egyptian Blue was more ready for widespread use unlike the more famous dark blue Lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone imported from what is now modern Afghanistan. Whose dark blue color was associated with the heavens with its importance only behind gold and silver. It’s presence or use has been attested as early as the Predynastic period, however after the 3rd Dynasty, due to disruptions of trade in the east, Lapis lazuli became primarily utilized in jewelry, small figurines and amulets(Magalini, M., Guidorzi, L., Re, A. et al (2026)/Wilkinson 2008, p.134-135).

Resulting in both cultures using the Egyptian Blue styled of ceramics for bowls, cups, jars, vessels, animal figurines, along with jewelry and other decorative motifs with unique designs. All due to the color blue being very important in both cultures, hence the dye used into the manufacture of these ceramics and other materials(Kovalev,Rodler,Brøns, Rehren,2023). Because the color blue was associated with the heavens, water(especially the Nile), the Egyptian gods, Nun and Amun, as it was used for the decoration of temples and tombs(Colour: Blue/Ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses:British Museum). By the Second Intermediate Period, which was Kerma’s Classic period, Kerma had begun to be completely independent of Egypt in its development of its own blue faience/ceramics in regard to style, technique and composition(Lacovara, P. (1982). Kerma Analysis).

(More on Nun and Amun at a later time).

The animal figurines also gives a window into a cultural aspect of Kerma and the region of Nubia. The people’s religious practices and beliefs. As current evidence suggests that Kerma and a number of the other inhabitants of Nubia, held what could be viewed as primarily animistic practices, that objects, natural phenomena, plants and animals have(or could possess) a spiritual core and human-like abilities. While not necessarily anthropomorphic deities like gods and goddesses(Van Eyghen,H.(2023)/animism. Encyclopedia Britannica).

The prominent animals utilized during this period include the falcon, crocodiles, the hippopotamus, giraffes, lions and rams. Further engagement with the Egyptians over time would led to syncretism between both cultures. Especially by the New Kingdom period(Manzo(2023)/Smith(2021).

The most famous example of this syncretism would be with another widely known god from Ancient Egyptian religion, Amun. He would be explored further when we get into Egypt during the Middle Kingdom period, but in short Amun(Amon)was a local Theban god that would rise to prominence during the Middle Kingdom period prior to becoming venerated throughout Egypt at the beginning of the New Kingdom period as a god of creation, the sun, fertility, and kingship(Amon. Encyclopedia Britannica/Mark(2016)Amun).

It was due to the Egyptians interactions with Kerma and the inhabitants of Upper Nubia, that Amun would at least by the New Kingdom period, have gained one of his most iconic symbols. The ram, which by the Classic Kerma period(c.1750-1550 BCE), had held a very important role in the traditional belief system of the people of Kerma(Kerma:The Ancient African Kingdom:Milligan/D’itria, E. (2023)Animals). Being tied to both kingship(or nobility) and the sun, while being incorporated into the burials of high status individuals, as an offering along with ram theme decorations or motifs(D’itria, E.(2023)Animals).

(More on this syncretism later in a future article).

Aside from potentially shaping of one of the most widely known gods of Egypt. Another important god would have its own influence within the region. The goddess Taweret.

The Egyptian goddess Taweret, was a god of childbirth and protector of women, with her symbols being associated with the lion, crocodile, but most famously the hippopotamus. As she is most prominently depicted as a bipedal female hippopotamus, with human(her breasts), lion, and crocodile features. Her name means “she who is great” or “great one”, as she was honored by the epithets such as “Lady of Heaven”, “Mistress of the Horizon”, “She Who Removes Water”, “Mistress of Pure Water”, and “Lady of the Birth House(TaweretUk /Pinch(1994)39/Houser-Wegner (2002)p.351–352).

The cultural significance of both her and the hippopotamus is very important for both Egypt and Kerma(& later Kush). As the Hippo was seen as a powerful and fierce animal to be respected, especially when it came to its young. The Egyptians even tried to keep them in a zoo like enclosure. This level of admiration helped fueled its association with the goddess Taweret(TaweretUk/Atiya(2008)p.164/Sax(2001)p.156).

The prominence of Hippos(and certain other animals like crocodiles & giraffes), remains, iconography and wall paintings in private homes, royal chapels, and cemeteries shows how important these animals were to the Kerma culture, especially by the Classic period with the goddess Taweret appearing in various places from the rulers funerary complexes, to private funerary beds, amulets and more(D’itria, E.(2023)Animals).

Showing another example of how interwoven Egypt and Kerma had become with each other thanks in part of their geopolitical interests being linked through Nubia. That Nubia served as a key bridge between the two and will continue to so going forward(Walsh(2018)20. 31-51).

Due to the unique developments of the Middle Kerma period, the city of Kerma, had expanded as an urban center, with city walls and extensive defensive fortifications, a religious complex structure with in the city consisting of a Deffura(style of temple) and chapels. Along with royal and high status living quarters, and workshops for metal workers(ex.bronze & gold), and an expanding Eastern cemetery or necropolis with increasingly more elaborate burials. As the deceased were buried with the head pointing east with animal sacrifices(goat, sheep, sometime a dog), some with woven beads, ostrich feathers, ornate jewelry and large Egyptian storage jars. Further showing how the city of Kerma was a thriving center on par with the major city centers of Egypt and further beyond during the Middle Bronze Age(Smith(2021)).

As Kerma served as the capital of its kingdom primarily settled between the Nile’s 2nd and 4th cataracts, the village of Gism al-Arba helps provide an interesting contrast with the capital city. As Gism al-Arba, despite being damaged by erosion, was a small agricultural village that thrived from the Early Kerma period(c.2500-2050 BCE) to the New Kingdom(c.1500-1050 BCE), that archaeologists have learned from the present evidence of prestige items, such as ivory bed inlays, personal ornaments, horn protectors for sacrificial animals, and polished pottery, that it the residents had access to goods suggesting that they to were apart of a thriving economy(Smith(2021)).

About the Kings of Kerma:

Kaa(c. 1900 BCE), Teriahi (c. 1880 BCE) the son of Kaa, Awawa (c. 1870 BCE) the son of Kaa, and Utererses(c. 1850 BCE) son of Awawa. Are names that appear in the late Middle Kingdom Egyptian texts known as Execration texts. Who are among the few examples of identified kings/rulers of Kerma(Hamblin 2006, p.405/Kushites Expressing “Egyptian Kingship” Julien Cooper).

Execration texts, are a type of magical ritual texts used to denounce or curse a person, entity, or object, that a person finds detestable, dangerous, or offensive in some way. While not just for the establishment of a curse, but also a formula designed to ward off or destroy harmful entities before they could harm someone or, in the case of physical or mental illness, to drive away a evil spirit and banish it from returning in what can be considered to be one of the earliest forms of exorcism(Mark(2017)Spiritual Defense).

One of the most important examples of these texts, would be “The Book of Overthrowing Apophis”. A text centered on ritually protecting the Egyptian sun god(Ra), during his travel in the underworld at night. Against Apophis(Apep), the great serpent of chaos, whose goal is to devour the Sun, or the god, Ra in order to return creation back to chaos(Mark(2017)Spiritual Defense)/Mark,(2017)Apophis).

In the case of these four kings of Kerma, the first kingdom of Kush. We see that with our current available evidence of Kerma’s leaders, with the association of kingship occur in the Execration texts aligning with the reign of the 12th Dynasty pharaohs, particularly the campaigns of the Pharaohs Senusret III and his son, Amenemhat III in Lower Nubia for securing resources, territory and most importantly curtailing Kerma’s influence in northern Nubia. A region on southern Egypt’s border(DeMola(2013)/Shaw 2003, p.155/Clayton(1994)p.86/Hamblin 2006, p.405).

However we have a problem, a reoccurring problem that we’ve seen since we have been on this journey through this region’s ancient past. The lack of indigenous sources or accounts concerning the ancient people of Nubia, Kerma, and Libya especially. As what we have been able to use have mostly been Egyptian records, archaeological evidence, and genetic research to help develop the boarder picture in order to gain a better understanding of these diverse populations. Whose voices are sadly at this current time silent, due to nature of the available evidence from the people themselves.

Hence why the work in archaeology, anthropology, history and in related and supporting fields are so important. Because we want to avoid biases in our thinking due to both data that is present as well as information that is absent. Especially absent due to circumstances we cannot control. Because these are people who lived during an interesting intersection of not only of the societal development in their corner of the world but in human history itself that would go on to effect more people further in time from them. That they themselves would die while never having any knowledge of what was to come.

Which is why please support the efforts of professional and dedicated archaeologists, historians, ethnographers, anthropologists, and others. Because such work is crucial in gaining knowledge and understanding of history and people. Because it is a valuable tool against misinformation, disinformation and prejudices.

Kerma at the end of the Middle Kingdom:

When we started exploring Kerma during the Middle Kingdom period, we can say that after Egypt’s First Intermediate period, it had grown into a formidable political entity that could project economic and social influence upon its neighbors, including the Egyptians themselves(Bonnet(2003)p.16–26/DeMola(2013)/Fletcher, 2016, p.155/Phillips(2005)p.756–758/Edwards(2004)p. 2,75, 77–78).

Through the Egyptians had recovered under Mentuhotep II of the 11th Dynasty, along with 12th Dynasty pharaohs like Senusret III and Amenemhat III had reestablished Egyptian control over Lower Nubia up to the Nile’s 2nd cataract at Batn al-Hajar. Making it the boundary between the two kingdoms. Being a primary place for conducting trade and monitoring each other’s movements. It was also during this time that we began to see the use of the name that Kerma and its kingdom would become synonymous with in the Egyptian records. Kush(Kushites Expressing “Egyptian Kingship” Julien Cooper/Smith(2021)/Dirminti, E. (2014)/Callender(2000)p.140).

Besides the nature of their relationship, the Kingdom of Kerma showcases that it was a society that had reached at level of political and economic development that one of the most highly regarded civilizations of the ancient world, Egypt saw it both as a economic partner and a security threat(DeMola(2013)/Dirminti, E. (2014))).

The latter for good reason because as Kerma transitions to its Classic period(c.1750-1500 BCE), Egypt had once again begun to decline, leading to its 2nd Intermediate period(c.1640-1548 BCE). Giving Kerma, the first Kingdom of Kerma, the time of its greatest development and expansion(Radner,Moeller, Nadine, Potts(2020)p.102–103/DeMola(2013)). However this part of Kerma’s story is best reserved for another time. Because next time we have to explore Egypt’s Middle Kingdom period and how it came to an end. Which will provide the opportunity Kerma will capitalize on.

Ending credits:

Thank you for reading. Exploring this chapter of Kerma and its position with Egypt during this period of the Middle Bronze Age, was a fascinating endeavor. Especially when considering how this society has been overlooked(& sadly still is). Next time we’ll continue with Mentuhotep II and the 11th Dynasty and how he and his successors will continue to shape not only Egypt for years to come but also its relationship with its neighbors as well.

As always for more information on today’s reading please check out the bibliography section below and once again thank you for reading.

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The Lower Nubian Egyptian Fortresses in the Middle Kingdom: A Strategic Point of View By Eduardo Ferreira

Fort Images:

Buhen: Image Credit : Franck Monnier – Éditions Safran - CC BY 2.5, Image Credit : Nubian Image Archive – CC BY 2.0(https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/09/buhen-the-sunken-ancient-egyptian-fortress/135148#google_vignette)

Image: Effigies of giraffes & elephants made of mica and/or ivory unearthed in royal tombs in Kerma’s necropolis. These figures were embedded in the sides and headboards of wooden funeral beds. (Mica appliqué of a giraffe, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Harvard University—Boston Museum of Fine Arts Expedition, 20.1770.2, Ivory inlay of an elephant, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Harvard University—Boston Museum of Fine Arts Expedition, 21.11797-9) https://archaeology.org/issues/september-october-2020/features/sudan-kerma-nubian-kingdom/

Image: Site of Kerma. From Kerma: The Ancient African Kingdom by Mark Milligan Image Credit : Lassi - CC BY-SA 4.0(https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/11/kerma-the-ancient-african-kingdom/136144)

previous articles related to Kerma & the most recent article of the overall subject:

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In 1824 around 50 years after the start of the war for the independence of what would become the United States, the new nation’s 5th President, James Monroe, had extended an invitation to a special guest to mark the occasion. That guest being French General, Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette or Lafayette, as he is more commonly known as(Mark(2021)Gilbert du Motier/Mark(2024)).

Marquis de Lafayette, was a key figure and ally of the American Revolution, hence why President Monroe, one of the few remaining founding fathers who served, had invited him to mark this occasion. A tour of the nation the Marquis helped give birth to that had grown into 24 states. However it was during his stop in Yorktown, Virginia, where Marquis de Lafayette, would encounter a familiar face that brought him such joy to see. An ally who was critical to not only Marquis de Lafayette but the Patriots’s success on the battlefield. That ally was James Armistead Lafayette(Mark(2021)Gilbert du Motier/Mark(2024)).

James Lafayette, His Beginnings:

James Armistead Lafayette(c.1748-1832), was a Black American Patriot, who served the Continental Army, during the American Revolutionary War under the French General, Marquis de Lafayette, as one of his spies(”James Lafayette (ca.1748–1830)”. Encyclopedia Virginia/Du Bois (1976)p. 364/Mark(2024)).

Though the time frame of his birth has been subject to debate, James was born into slavery in what is now New Kent County, Virginia on the property of one Colonel John Armistead. Meaning that he was the Colonel’s slave. However what should be noted here is that James was raised alongside Colonel Armistead’s son, William. Reason being so that James would eventually serve as William’s personal manservant. To become an effective servant, James taught skills that were usual for slaves not only during his time but also during the entire practice of slavery inside the United States. James was educated(Mark(2024)/”James Lafayette (ca.1748–1830)”. Encyclopedia Virginia/James Armistead Lafayette BattlefieldTrust).

As during the run of Slavery in the United States, the fear of literate or educated slaves(along with Free People of Color), worried the slaveholding class. As their concerns ranged from slaves forging documents in order to escape into free states to slaves being able to organized and coordinate rebellions. As laws slave holding colonies and later states would pass anti-literacy laws from between 1740-1834 due to these fears(Span, Sanya(2019)p. 402/Finkelman(2006)p.445).

However this was not a concern for Colonel Armistead, as he would have James educated, with the intention of having him become an effective servant for his son William(Mark(2024)). Though James’s education would play a key role in his success for during the Revolution and after.

James arrives at the inflection point of History:

William Armistead would inherit all his father’s property including his slaves, James amongst them as his personal servant, after Colonel John Armistead’s death in 1779. James life would have mirrored those of other slaves from the 13 British American Colonies, except 1779, was when the American war for Independence had moved into the southern colonies. As their British had begun their southern strategy with the intention of pulling more American Colonists, who were Loyalists into their ranks. As it was perceived by British forces that the southern colonies held more Loyalist support than Patriot(Mark(2024)/Loyalists and Patriots. SmithsonianPDF).

Amongst those who both the Patriots and the Loyalists wanted to pull into their ranks were the African American population of the American colonies. Each side offered Black Americans incentives in joining their respective causes. The main one being from Slavery if they serve the cause of either slave holding side. As the institution of slavery and the Transatlantic Slave Trade contributed heavily to the economies of both warring factions(Gilbert, 2012/Mark(2024)/Dr.Zygmont,2024).

So the question became which side Black Americans believed they had the best opportunities with? With the opening shot by the British, such as with the Dunmore and Philipsburg Proclamations by Virginia’s Royal Governor, Lord Dumore(John Murray), and British General, Henry Clinton offering freedom to those who served in the British military(Carnahan (2007) p.18/Mark(2024)/Davis(2006)p.150).

Though Black Americans have been serving the Patriot cause from the beginning, Crispus Attucks at the Boston Massacre, Prince Estabrook at Lexington, and Salem Poor at Bunker Hill just to name a few noteworthy examples(Mark(2024)/Kerschen(2006)p. 526–527), who had served the Patriot cause with distinction. Despite the on going debate of formally enlisting for the Continental Army, particularly enslaved Black Americans due to prejudice and slave holder concerns. However by 1778 the Continental Army was officially recruiting Black soldiers in 1778, offering enslaved Black soldiers freedom in exchange of their service(Mark(2024)/Neimeyer(1995)p.65-88). Resulting in Black Americans in the thousands serving in both the British and American militaries during the Revolution(Nash (2012)p.254).

By 1781, James hadn’t chosen either side, he was still serving under William Armistead, who was a starch Virginian Patriot. This however changed when James heard of the request of French general Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, to recruit Black American men to join the Patriot side. The reasons why the French general inspired him are currently unknown but James asked William for permission to go join him, and William agreed under the condition that James would return as his slave(Mark(2024)).

James the Spy, Operation Double Agent:

James, along with other African Americans, would be recruited by General Lafayette, during his pursuit of the army of Benedict Arnold. As James and other Black Americans, familiarity with the Virginian terrain would prove vital, but the other reason was that General Lafayette was going to use the Dunmore Proclamation against the British, by having James for example pose as a runaway slave who wanted to join the British side(Mark(2024)/Egner, Black Spies/James Armistead Lafayette BattlefieldTrust).

James would infiltrate Arnold’s camp at Portsmouth, Virginia, who in turn wanted to use James as his own spy. Resulting in James possibly being the first double agent in the history of US Espionage and Counterintelligence(Mark(2024)/Egner, Black Spies/James Armistead Lafayette BattlefieldTrust). As James would move freely back and forth between each camps, feeding accurate intelligence to General Lafayette, while providing inadequate to false information to Arnold and his officers(Mark(2024)/James Armistead Lafayette BattlefieldTrust).

James would continue to do this while serving General Lord Charles Cornwallis, after Arnold had headed back north. Which while James was successful, it was a very dangerous game. Because the rules of war covering captured soldiers as prisoners, did not apply to spies. If discovered James would have been excluded on the spot(Mark(2024)).

However James was successful thanks in part to the wrong assumption many British officers and soldiers had about him. They thought he was uneducated or illiterate. Resulting in James not only relaying conversations he was present for, but reading, handling and transporting critical documents, as he was also the courier for General Cornwallis himself. With James ultimately providing critical intelligence during the siege of Yorktown, ultimately leading to the Patriots victory, Cornwallis’s surrender and the ending of the war(Mark(2024)/Egner, Black Spies/James Armistead Lafayette BattlefieldTrust/”James Lafayette (ca.1748–1830)”. Encyclopedia Virginia).

James Armistead Lafayette & Freedom:

After the 1783 Treaty of Paris was signed ending the war and formally recognizing the United States as an independent nation(Mark(2024)Treaty of Paris of 1783), a number of enslaved Black Americans soldiers who served were freed. Even a number of northern US states would abolish or gradually abolish slavery in response to the war of independence and the service of these former soldiers(Foner (2010)p.14/Cogliano (2003)p.187/Mark(2024)).

This was not the case for James, as he would return to serving William Armistead, due to James’s status as a spy instead of an enlisted soldier, which prevented him from being freed. However in 1784 after learning that James was still enslaved, Maquis de Lafayette, would petition the Virginia state legislature for James freedom(along with William Armistead), attesting to James service and the importance of James to his success of his operations during the war. James would be freed in 1787 by the Virginia state government. It would be years later that he would finally receive his pension for his service. However in gratitude to his former commanding officer, James had adopted the surname “Lafayette”. Becoming known as James Armistead Lafayette(Mark(2024)/Egner, Black Spies/James Armistead Lafayette BattlefieldTrust/”James Lafayette (ca.1748–1830)”. Encyclopedia Virginia).

Prior to his reunion with Marquis de Lafayette in 1824, James would start his own family in Virginia on his own 40 acre farm living as a freeman until his death in the early 1830s(Mark(2024)/James Armistead Lafayette BattlefieldTrust/”James Lafayette (ca.1748–1830)”. Encyclopedia Virginia).

Conclusion:

James Lafayette was fascinating individual at the crossroads of history, that along with other Black Americans of his time, who at great risk drove into the world of Espionage and Counterintelligence. In doing so they will helped forge a new nation that would one day become one of the great world powers. A nation that would at times doubt and devalue their worth and humanity due to the color of skin. However that same nation on its road to becoming a great world power, will learn several lessons the hard way in why holding such prejudices is costly. Resulting in Black Americans, particularly in the fields of Espionage and Counterintelligence, playing a vital role in helping the infant United States during its future struggles. And that would be a story for another time.

Thank you for reading. If you have read parts 1 and 2 please check them out, along with the citations and extra information in the bibliography section down below.

Bibliography: Mark, H. W. (2024, February 09). James Armistead Lafayette. World History Encyclopedia.https://www.worldhistory.org/James_Armistead_Lafayette/

Mark, H. W. (2021, December 15). Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Gilbert_du_Motier_Marqui

https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/black-spies-american-revolution “Black Spies of the American Revolution. The Very Nature of Espionage is Secrecy” By Kate Egner

James Armistead Lafayette BattlefieldTrust

James Armistead Lafayette Wiki

James Armistead Lafayette:National Museum USArmy

James Lafayette: A Legacy of Courage and Espionage.National Park Service

Spy Recognizes African Americans in Espionage.SpyMuseum

African Americans and the American Revolution.JYMuseum

King, Colbert I. (2015-07-03). “The American Revolution was not a whites-only war”. Washington Post.

Espionage Facts.SpyMuseum

Wallace, W.M. (2026, July 6). American Revolution. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution

Loyalists and Patriots. SmithsonianPDF

Staff. “James Lafayette (ca. 1748–1830)”. Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities/Library of Virginia.

Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt (1976). The Crisis. Vol. 83–84. Crisis Publishing Company. p. 364.

Christopher M. Span; Brenda N. Sanya (2019). “Education and the African Diaspora”. In Rury, John L.; Tamura, Eileen H. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Education. Oxford University Press. p. 402.

Finkelman, Paul (April 6, 2006). Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 445.

Kerschen, Lois (2006). Finkelman, Paul (ed.). Encyclopedia of African American History 1619–1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 526–527.

Carnahan, Burrus M. (2007). Act of Justice: Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation and the Law of War. University Press of Kentucky. p. 18.

Gilbert, Alan. Black Patriots and Loyalists: Fighting for Emancipation in the War for Independence. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2012

Davis, David Brion (2006). Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World. Oxford University Press. p. 150.

Dr. Bryan Zygmont, “1607–1754 in North America: colonies, slavery, and war,” in Smarthistory, June 25, 2024, accessed July 23, 2026, https://smarthistory.org/1607-1754-in-north-america-colonies-slavery-and-war/.

Neimeyer, Charles Patrick. America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army(1995) p.65-88

Nash, Gary B. “The African Americans’ Revolution,” in Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution(2012) edited by Edward G. Gray and Jane Kamensky pp. 250–70. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199746705.013.0015

Mark, H. W. (2024, September 06). Treaty of Paris of 1783. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Treaty_of_Paris_of_1783/

Foner, Eric (2010). The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 14.

Francis D. Cogliano (2003). Revolutionary America, 1763–1815: A Political History. Routledge. p. 187.

https://rue1b225.substack.com/p/black-americans-in-espionage-and “Black Americans in Espionage & Counterintelligence. Black Spies During the American Revolution Part 1.”

“Black Americans in Espionage & Counterintelligence. Black Spies During the American Revolution Part 2: The Culper Spy Ring & its Black Associates.”

Image: Martin, U. e. a. J. B. (2024, February 09). James Armistead Lafayette. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18458/james-armistead-lafayette/

Image: Paon, J. L. (2024, February 09). The Marquis de Lafayette with James Armistead Lafayette. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18457/the-marquis-de-lafayette-with-james-armistead-lafa/

Image: The Valentine . Attributed to John Blennerhassett Martin, ca. 1824. Oil on canvas(https://encyclopediavirginia.org/11004hpr-2b228bb0c96c890/)

Image: Crispus Attucks in the center Bufford, W. L. C. a. H. (2023, November 08). Lithograph of the Boston Massacre, 5 March 1770. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18120/lithograph-of-the-boston-massacre-5-march-1770/

https://www.kbtx.com/2026/06/25/brazos-valley-african-american-museum-highlights-james-armistead-lafayettes-story/ “Brazos Valley African American Museum highlights James Armistead Lafayette’s story”

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By August 1778 the British forces had long withdrawn from the capital of the infant United States, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but had consolidated their position in occupied New York City. Making this major American city a crucial center for British military operations(Lender & Stone 2016 p.141–143/Rose 2007, p.18, 27, 32).

During this time General Washington after trial and error, with limited success, this was when Washington with Major Benjamin Tallmadge(his future intelligence chief), Lieutenant Caleb Brewster, and General Charles Scott(he would later resign), would establish the spy network known as the Culper Ring, with Major Tallmadge’s childhood friend, Abraham Woodhull as the point of contact within New York City(Schellhammer 2012, p.45/Tallmadge 1858, p.68/Rose 2007, p.72, 79/Sharp 2012, p.240).

As Woodhull under the alias Samuel Culper(Rose 2006, p.87), would coordinate with Brewster and Tallmadge, through both Woodhull’s and several other agents infiltrating New York City(Rose, 2007, p.101-2/Nelson, 2011. p.217/Naylor,2012. p.38). When the Culper Ring expanding to include other agents such as James Rivington, Anna Strong, and Robert Townsend, who operated under the alias of Samuel Culper Jr. Due to the captured privateer John Wolsey, informing the British, that Woodhull was engaged in dubious conduct. Resulting in Woodhull being under increased suspicion(Rose, 2007,p.129,150-54/

Culper Spy Ring. Encyclopedia Britannica/Nelson, 2011. p.763).

It is through Robert Townsend that we would meet one of the few known Black Americans associated with the Culper Ring, Elizabeth, who is best known as Liss.

The Lady known as Liss:

Born around 1763 in Long Island, New York, Elizabeth, or Liss, as she was known by. She was since her childhood enslaved to the wealthy merchant family, the Townsend, primarily to Samuel Townsend. The father of Robert Townsend, the very same “Culper Jr.” mentioned earlier(Liss: BattlefieldTrust/https://enslaved.org/fullStory/16-23-126892/).

During the war the Townsend family home in Oyster Bay, New York, was frequented by British officers and personnel during the occupation. During which Liss and other slaves would have served the British officers, including one British officer who was opposed to slavery, Lt. Col. John Graves Simcoe, friend of the infamous British spy of the American Revolution, John André. Lt. Col. Simcoe opposition to slavery manifested itself beyond personal belief(he and others from the Revolutionary War are a subject for another time). Simcoe had actually helped a number of Black people escape from slavery, one of them being Liss (Liss: BattlefieldTrust/https://enslaved.org/fullStory/16-23-126892/).

However despite Simcoe’s efforts, Liss was captured and re-enslaved in Manhattan by another British man. Around this time Robert Townsend had joined the Cupler Ring, As Samuel Culper Jr and begun operating within Manhattan(Rose, 2007, p.132/Liss: BattlefieldTrust/https://enslaved.org/fullStory/16-23-126892/). Due to his on going relationship with Liss during his operations in Manhattan and after the war. Such as when a then pregnant, Liss, had reached out to Robert to have him repurchase her from her British enslaver, who was leaving with the British evacuation in 1782(Liss: BattlefieldTrust/https://enslaved.org/fullStory/16-23-126892/).

Coupled with the account of two enslaved Black women in the fall of 1780, who attempted to expose Benedict Arnold’s treason plot, but their claims fell on deaf ears due to their status, in which due to Liss’s connection with Simcoe and John André. It is quite possible that she was one of the two women.(Liss: BattlefieldTrust/https://enslaved.org/fullStory/16-23-126892/).

Because John André and Benedict Arnold would be discovered and John André captured and hanged thanks to in part to the efforts of other informants such as Robert’s sister Sarah,(Samuelson (1989)7(2):16)Meanwhile Arnold would flee back into New York City after switching sides, and proceed to round up dozens of suspected American spies that Robert knew. Fearing that he too would be captured, Robert had went into hiding at Peck Slip at the edge of the city(Liss: BattlefieldTrust).

The nature of the information, the preceding events and circumstances, Liss’s proximity to British officers and her relationship with Robert Townsend during his time in the Culper Ring and after the war. Has placed Liss as one of the most likely candidates for one of the members of the Culper Ring, known as Agent 355 or the Lady(Liss: BattlefieldTrust/https://enslaved.org/fullStory/16-23-126892/). As this member’s information was credited to exposing Benedict Arnold(Martin(2015) 8 (3): 99–109).

If confirmed by further documentation Liss would become one of the earliest known female Black American spies whose role in the United States’s gaining independence cannot be ignored. However Liss and her new born son Harry(he was of mixed race but his father is unknown) lives would take a turn for hardship.

As mentioned earlier Liss(while still pregnant with Harry) had went to Robert, for his help in keeping her from being taken away by her evacuating slave owner. Robert agreed to repurchase her and had her live with him at his Peck Slip home younger brother William, cousin John, and a white housekeeper named Polly Banvard. Prior to writing his last letter to Washington near the end of the war(Liss: BattlefieldTrust/https://enslaved.org/fullStory/16-23-126892/).

In February of 1783 Harry was born(I’m starting to suspect Harry might have Robert’s son if not a British officer’s), during the summer of that year, Robert for some reason sold Liss to a widowed friend of theirs, Ann Sharwin, under the condition nothing would happen to both Liss and Harry. However Ann would remarry Alexander Robertson, a wealthy widower a year later. Their marriage had fallen apart almost immediately, and unbeknownst to Robert in January 1785 Liss was sold to Charleston, South Carolina. While being separated from two-year-old Harry. Who remained enslaved in the Robertson household. What made matters even more distressing was that Liss was transported on the “Lucretia”, a ship captained by a man named James Tinker, who was notorious for kidnapping free Black people in New York and selling them into slavery in Charleston(Liss: BattlefieldTrust/https://enslaved.org/fullStory/16-23-126892/).

It wouldn’t be until 1787 when Robert discovered what happened to Liss, leading to a confrontation between him and Robertson. He would take back Harry to Oyster Bay to his parents home, as he and his brother Solomon, used their merchant connections to locate Liss. They succeeded but encountered a problem, New York in 1786 had enacted a law that prohibited the sale of slaves across state lines. The irony being that this law was supported by Robert Townsend, as he was a member of oh the New York Manumission Society. Only way for Robert get Liss back was to work around this law by having her smuggled back into New York. After this adventure Liss would be reunited with her son, Harry , and by 1803 they would finally be freed(Liss: BattlefieldTrust/https://enslaved.org/fullStory/16-23-126892/).

Though Liss has notable evidence pointing to her as not only a likely source of information for the Culper Ring but potentially one of its agents( please check the investigative video in the bibliography), the next individual who was apart of the spy network tied to Culper Ring had more confirmed evidence. Enter Cato.

Cato and Hercules Mulligan:

Hercules Mulligan was an Irish-born tailor who moved to New York City in 1740. During the Revolutionary War(1775-1783), Mulligan was one of the earliest members of the Sons of Liberty, a member of the a volunteer New York militia, that had stolen British cannons, while being a adoptive parent to Alexander Hamilton and married to the niece of Admiral Sanders of the British Royal Navy(Hercules Mulligan Battlefield Trust).

Mulligan had a pronounced influence on Hamilton, from supporting his education at the institutions that would become Princeton and Columbia Universities to influencing Hamilton’s views on independence, as he was apart of Mulligan’s militia(Chernow(2004) p.73/Misencik(2013)p.95–98/Hercules Mulligan Battlefield Trust).

During General Washington’s withdrawal from New York, Mulligan had remained behind within New York City(Schecter(2002) p. 259–263/Hercules Mulligan Battlefield Trust). Returning to his tailoring practice, however he wouldn’t stay inactive for long as Alexander Hamilton proposed that Mulligan operate as a spy, due to his access to British soldiers and officers through his tailoring business(O’Brien(1937) p.89/Hercules Mulligan Battlefield Trust).

Hercules Mulligan would accepted this task, and while playing up to the egos of British officers, he was able to gain valuable information and insight into British operations. However Mulligan had a problem, getting this information to Washington. This is where Cato joins the effort. Cato was a slave owned by Mulligan(or hired by him), who worked in Manhattan as a chocolate maker. Due to his status as a slave and the Mulligan’s popularity with the British soldiers, Cato would cross back and forth between New York and New Jersey delivering vital intelligence from Mulligan to Washington(Egner, Black Spies/Daigler (2014)p.189/Misencik(2013)p.109–122/Hercules Mulligan Battlefield Trust).

Cato and Mulligan tactics would include teaming up with Haym Solomon, who was paroled by the British as a translator for the Hessians soldiers under their command. By advertising Mulligan’s business to Hessians officers. The three would operate in this fashion, Mulligan would send Cato to Salomon’s shop with the ads that needed to be translated into German and passed on to the Hessians. Cato would returned with the translations and intelligence that Mulligan in turn would have reported to Hamilton and Washington at Continental Army headquarters(Misencik(2013)p.109–122).

However the danger of Mulligan and Cato faced in their operations was always present. Such as in the aftermath of the British withdrawal from Philadelphia in 1778, after the British tightened their presence in New York, Mulligan had came under suspicion of Espionage, due to Cato’s trips and deliveries. Cato would be captured and placed under interrogation. However he didn’t expose their operation(Misencik(2013)p.109–122).

There are two instances during the Revolutionary War, that Mulligan and Cato impacted in such a way, that it could have changed the course of history if they hadn’t acted. Their intervention on preventing the capture of General George Washington himself on two separate occasions.

The first attempt on Washington the pair thwarted was during the winter of 1779. A British officer had came to Mulligan in need of a coat late in the evening. Mulligan during his conversation with him had learned that the British had plans to attack and capture Washington the following day. Afterwards Mulligan had Cato set out with the vital information to alert Washington of the British plans thwarting them(Hercules Mulligan Battlefield Trust).

The second attempt against Washington was in 1780. Mulligan had learned from his brother Hugh, who was working for worked for British army contractor, Kortright and Company, that British had plans to intercept Washington in Connecticut, while he was in route to meet French General Rochambeau. Mulligan had Cato ride out to get the information to Washington as quickly as possible. Upon receiving the crucial intelligence, Washington rerouted his forces in order to distract the British from the French landing in Newport Rhode Island(Hercules Mulligan Battlefield Trust/Egner, Black Spies/Misencik(2013)p.109–122).

During the closing of the war, Cato would be granted his freedom for his service, in 1783 he would be discharged from serving in the military after the war’s conclusion, and would move to Plymouth, Massachusetts(Deetz(1996)p.189). Hercules Mulligan would be cleared of being a loyalist or being loyalist sympathizer by George Washington himself. Who after the British evacuated New York, met Mulligan at his store, received new clothes made by him, and had breakfast with Mulligan. Mulligan would go on to display a sign on his store boasting “Clothier to Genl. Washington(Hercules Mulligan Battlefield Trust/Chernow, 2005 p.185).

By 1785 Mulligan, with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, would be among the 19 founders of the New York Manumission Society, an early American organization founded to promote the abolition of slavery. He would pass away in 1825 in his early 80s(Chernow, 2005 p.214/Hercules Mulligan Battlefield Trust).

Involvement with the Culper Ring:

Mulligan and Cato had begun their operations prior to the Culper Ring’s establishment but did operate parallel to the Culper Ring with some coordination. Such as some of the information Mulligan provided being shared with Townsend that the later had included in his reports along his acknowledgement of the efforts of Cato(Knott 1996, p.40/Rose, 2007, p.226/Misencik(2013)p.116).

Conclusion:

As stated in part 1(see below) with Quaco Honeyman, Antigua, and Saul Matthews. We see with the stories of Liss and Cato, that not only did Black Americans’s role in the fields of Espionage and Counterintelligence was very critical for the success of American Independence. We see how complicated and dangerous their lives were during this time, especially in the case of Liss, after the war itself. Along with how slavery itself was being questioned and opposed by the people these and other unnamed Black Americans had served alongside. In some cases whose lives they had saved.

Rue’s Substack

Black Americans in Espionage & Counterintelligence.

A “Spy” is generally defined as a person who tries to secretly obtain information about a country or organization for another country or organization, or more straight forward, someone who secretly watches the movement or actions of other people(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Spy). This in turn leads us to the concept of Espionage…

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2 months ago · 6 likes · 2 comments · Rue Ryuzaki

Next time we look at the history and story of one more Black American spy of the American Revolution we have available information on. This gentleman being one James Armistead Lafayette.

Thank you for reading. If you enjoyed reading this article, first thank you again. Second please read part 3 when it becomes available and if you haven’t please read part 1. Lastly please check the Bibliography section below for more information concerning this subject.

Bibliography: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culper_Ring “Culper Ring”

Gould, K. (2026, June 22). Culper Spy Ring. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Culper-Spy-Ring

https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/black-spies-american-revolution “Black Spies of the American Revolution. The Very Nature of Espionage is Secrecy” By Kate Egner

Spy Recognizes African Americans in Espionage.SpyMuseum

African Americans and the American Revolution.JYMuseum

King, Colbert I. (2015-07-03). “The American Revolution was not a whites-only war”. Washington Post.

Espionage Facts.SpyMuseum

Wallace, W.M. (2026, July 6). American Revolution. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution

Loyalists and Patriots. SmithsonianPDF

Liss: BattlefieldTrust

Enslaved During The Revolution:The Epic Story Of ElizabethABC7NY

https://enslaved.org/fullStory/16-23-126892/“Liss”

Lender, Mark Edward & Stone, Garry Wheeler (2016). Fatal Sunday: George Washington, the Monmouth Campaign, and the Politics of Battle. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p.141–143

Rose, Alexander (2007). Washington’s Spies; the story of America’s first Spy Ring. Bantam Dell. p.18, 27, 32,78-79,129,132,150-54

Rose, Alexander (2006). Washington’s Spies: The Story of America’s First Spy Ring (1st ed.). New York City: Bantam Books. p.87

Tallmadge, Benjamin (1858). Memoir of Col. Benjamin Tallmadge. Thomas Holman. p.68

Sharp, Arthur G (2012). Not Your Father’s Founders: An “Amended” Look at America’s First Patriots. Adams Media. p.240

Schellhammer, Michael (2012). George Washington and the Final British Campaign for the Hudson River, 1779. McFarland and Co. p.45

Nelson, David Paul. Culper Ring in Hastedt, Glenn, P., ed. Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations: A-J. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2011. p.217, 763

Naylor, Natalie A. Women in Long Island’s Past: A History of Eminent Ladies and Everyday Lives. Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2012. p.38.

Samuelson, Nancy B. (1989). “Revolutionary War Women and the Second Oldest Profession”. Minerva. 7 (2): 16.

Martin, Amy J. (Fall 2015). “America’s Evolution of Women and Their Roles in the Intelligence Community”. Journal of Strategic Security. 8 (3): 99–109. doi:10.5038/1944-0472.8.3S.1479.

Hercules Mulligan Battlefield Trust

Chernow, Ron (2004). Alexander Hamilton. Penguin Press. p.73

Chernow, Ron. Alexander Hamilton. New York: Penguin Books, 2005. Originally published New York, Penguin Press, 2004. p.185, 214

Misencik, Paul R. (2013). The original American spies : Seven covert agents of the Revolutionary War. McFarland. p.95–98, 109–122.

Misencik, Paul R. (2014). The original American spies: seven covert agents of the Revolutionary War. McFarland. p. 92.

Schecter, Barnet (2002). The Battle for New York. New York: Walker. p.259–263

O’Brien, Michael Joseph (1937). Hercules Mulligan, Confidential Correspondent of General Washington(1st ed.). P. J. Kenedy & Sons. p.89.

Daigler, Kenneth A. (2014). Spies, Patriots and Traitors: American Intelligence in the Revolutionary War. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. p. 189.

Deetz, James F. (August 1, 1996). In Small Things Forgotten: The Archaeology of Early American Life: An Archaeology of Early American Life(Expanded ed.). New York: Anchor Books. p. 189.

Knott, Stephen. Secret and Sanctioned: Covert Operations and the American Presidency. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 p. 40.

Image: “Liss” by Lindsey Levine, collection of Claire Bellerjeau(Liss: BattlefieldTrust)

Image: Crispus Attucks in the center

Bufford, W. L. C. a. H. (2023, November 08). Lithograph of the Boston Massacre, 5 March 1770. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18120/lithograph-of-the-boston-massacre-5-march-1770/

Image: Verger, J. B. A. d. (2024, February 07). Black Infantryman from the 1st Rhode Island Regiment. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18451/black-infantryman-from-the-1st-rhode-island-regime/

https://rue1b225.substack.com/p/black-americans-in-espionage-and “Black Americans in Espionage & Counterintelligence. Black Spies During the American Revolution Part 1.”

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A “Spy” is generally defined as a person who tries to secretly obtain information about a country or organization for another country or organization, or more straight forward, someone who secretly watches the movement or actions of other people(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Spy). This in turn leads us to the concept of Espionage.

Espionage being the practice or act of spying or using spies to obtain information concerning the plans and activities of a foreign government or a competing company(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.).Espionage). As a result “Espionage” when it becomes organized, especially highly coordinated or a sophisticated service for an enterprise or state entity. Such as a nation’s government, particularly for national security purposes, is when their use of spies(intelligence agents or personnel) for espionage becomes an Intelligence Service or Agency with important functions and duties(Cambridge University Press. (n.d.). Intelligence Agency). With one of these services or agencies most critical duties bring Counterintelligence.

As “Counterintelligence” is the organized activity of an intelligence service designed to block an enemy’s sources of information, deceive said enemy, prevent sabotage, and to gather political and military information(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Counterintelligence).

Within the American Revolution, information and how it was understood, utilized, and protected was just as important as the weapons, supplies, alliances and personnel that were able to be brought unto the battlefield. Before we discussed the role of Black Americans in Counterintelligence and espionage for the newly formed United States during its war for independence, let’s understand the setting they were living in.

The Revolution African Americans found themselves in.

The world of American Revolutionary War between the 13 American colonies, that would become the United States of America against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland(at the time) was an interesting period for the free and enslaved people of African origin and descent(American Revolution. Encyclopedia Britannica).

Because during this time slavery in the British colonies of North America had been practiced for over a hundred years with those of African descent increasingly becoming the demographic that was filling this social status of exploitation via legal means or legislation both in the Colonies and Great Britain itself.(Osborne-Bartucca(2025)/Slave Codes of New York:Ulster County T&RC/1807, Act on the Abolition of the Slave Trade in the British Empire.EBSCO).

When the American Revolution broke out it had put forward to both free and enslaved Black Americans an interesting question. Should they side with the Patriots or be Loyalists and side with the British Crown(Loyalists and Patriots. SmithsonianPDF)?

Because both Patriots and the British government were offering incentives for Black people to choose one over the other. That primarily being financial incentives and/or freedom from enslavement. Leading to Black Americans choosing either side despite not always being properly awarded and receiving recognition for their service. For a number of Black Americans, who engaged in espionage and/or information(intelligence) gathering, this was done at great risk for little reward(Egner,Black Spies of the American Revolution).

So many did choose one side or the other, with an higher number of Black Americans being on the side of the British(Nash(2012) p.254). For today we’re going to explore those from the American Revolution that served the Patriot’s cause their the world of Espionage and Counterintelligence.

The Black Patriots in Espionage:

What is funny is that when it comes to the historical information concerning Black Americans in Espionage and Counterintelligence during the American Revolution. The available information concerning those involved can be thin at times, despite information gathering being what these individuals were known for. However with the available information we do have we can see how important these people were during this moment in history. Starting with Quaco Honeyman.

Quaco Honeyman is considered as being one of the first documented Black American spies. At the time Quaco was from Newport, Rhode Island, enslaved to British Loyalist, James Honeyman. During the war the British had occupied Newport at various times and the Loyalist would rent out their slaves to the British officials. During the summer of 1777, John Honeyman would rent Quaco out to one Mr. Overing on Aquidneck Island. However Quaco would escape back to the mainland and provided the Patriots with critical information and an opportunity. While Quaco was in the service of Mr. Overing he learned about British General Richard Prescott and his whereabouts. This information was capitalized on by the Patriots, who would soon capture General Prescott in his bed(Egner,Black Spies of the American Revolution/Inside the Vault : Highlights from the Gilder Lehrman Collection:Quaco Honeyman).

After the war the heirs of John Honeyman, tried to have Quaco returned to them as their slave. However Quaco was able yo successfully petition the Rhode Island state government for his freedom. In 1782 his petition of the Rhode Island General Assembly to change his legal status from that of enslaved to free was granted. Due to the value of his services to the state and the Patriot cause in the face of his former slave owner’s Loyalist association(Egner,Black Spies of the American Revolution/Inside the Vault : Highlights from the Gilder Lehrman Collection:Quaco Honeyman).

Please see here at The Gilder Lehrman Institute Collection of the documents involving Quaco Honeyman’s service, petition and his freedom by the Rhode Island General Assembly: Inside the Vault : Highlights from the Gilder Lehrman Collection:Quaco Honeyman

Another enslaved African American who was employed for the purposes of Espionage and Counterintelligence was Antigua of South Carolina. Antigua was formerly enslaved by John Harleston(c.1755-81) of St. John’s Parish in Berkeley County, South Carolina. Interestingly enough Harleston’s Will had freed Antigua possibly during his service to Governor John Rutledge of South Carolina during the Revolutionary War(February, 1783: Enslaved Revolutionary War spy freed along with his wife and child.SCHistoricalSociety).

During the Revolutionary War, Governor Rutledge had hired Antigua for the purpose of infiltrating and gathering information from British encampments concerning their activities and plans.That was until he was captured in September 1781 in British occupied Charleston. Not much is known about Antigua during his capture, however in 1783 after the war, former Governor Rutledge petitioned the South Carolina assembly for Antigua’s freedom from slavery, advocating for Antigua’s freedom due to his service to the Patriot cause. The legislature would grant this request honoring Antigua, his efforts and freeing him and his wife Hagar and their child from slavery(Egner,Black Spies of the American Revolution/February, 1783: Enslaved Revolutionary War spy freed along with his wife and child.SCHistoricalSociety).

The last individual we will be acknowledging in today’s block on Black Spies in the American Revolution is Saul Matthews.

Saul Matthews was an enslaved Black American to one Thomas Matthews from Virginia during the Revolutionary War(Burke(1992)p.57). In 1781 in response to British General Charles Cornwallis capturing of Portsmouth, Virginia, Colonel Josiah Parker of the Virginia Militia for the Continental Army, recruited Saul to spy on British camps, including going into the camps at great risk(Egner,Black Spies of the American Revolution/King(2015)).

Including following and providing information about Cornwallis’s army prior to the siege of Yorktown. Saul’s service was praised by Colonel Parker who would state Saul “deserved the applause of his country(Egner,Black Spies of the American Revolution/King(2015)). Sadly Saul Matthews’s service despite providing crucial intelligence that ultimately led to a major and decisive Patriot victory, he would not gain his freedom until 1792. After he had successfully petitioned the Virginia General Assembly for his freedom(Egner,Black Spies of the American Revolution/King(2015)/Hine, Jenkins(1999), p.11,180).

Conclusion:

As we see with just with the information available concerning Quaco Honeyman, Antigua, and Saul Matthews. That Black Americans role in the fields of Espionage and Counterintelligence was very critical for the success of American Independence. Next time we look at the history and stories of the other Black American spies of the American Revolution we have available information on.

Thank you for reading. If you enjoyed reading this article, first thank you again. Second please read part 2 when it becomes available and lastly please check the Bibliography section below.

Bibliography: Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Espionage. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved July 11, 2026, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/espionage

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Counterintelligence. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary [simple definition]. Retrieved July 11, 2026, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/simple/counterintelligence

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Spy. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary [simple definition]. Retrieved July 11, 2026, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/simple/spy

Cambridge University Press. (n.d.). Intelligence Agency. In Cambridge dictionary. Retrieved July 11, 2026, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/intelligence-agency

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/intelligence-agency “Intelligence Agency”

Espionage Facts.SpyMuseum

Wallace, W.M. (2026, July 6). American Revolution. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution

https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/black-spies-american-revolution “Black Spies of the American Revolution The Very Nature of Espionage is Secrecy” By Kate Egner

Spy Recognizes African Americans in Espionage.SpyMuseum

African Americans and the American Revolution.JYMuseum

Inside the Vault : Highlights from the Gilder Lehrman Collection:Quaco Honeyman

Osborne-Bartucca, Kristen. (2025, Feb 14). The History of Slavery in the United States From Beginning to End Retrieved from https://www.thecollector.com/history-slavery-us-beginning-to-end/

Slave Codes of New York:Ulster County T&RC

1807, Act on the Abolition of the Slave Trade in the British Empire.EBSCO

Loyalists and Patriots. SmithsonianPDF

Nash, Gary B. “The African Americans’ Revolution,” in Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution(2012) edited by Edward G. Gray and Jane Kamensky pp. 254 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199746705.013.0015

February, 1783: Enslaved Revolutionary War spy freed along with his wife and child.SCHistoricalSociety

Little Known Stories: Meet Antigua.SC250

King, Colbert I. (2015-07-03). “The American Revolution was not a whites-only war”. Washington Post.

Burke Davis (2 January 1992). Black Heroes of the American Evolution. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p.57.

Darlene Clark Hine; Earnestine Jenkins (12 October 1999). “Black Men’s History: Toward a Gendered Perspective”. In Darlene Clark Hine (ed.). A Question of Manhood. Vol. 1. Indiana University Press. p.11, 180.

Image: Verger, J. B. A. D. (1781) Soldiers in Uniform. United States of America Rhode Island, 1781. [Williamsburg, Virginia: publisher not identified, to 1784] [Photograph] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2021669876/.

Image: An African descended Continental Soldier dressed like other soldiers in the New York Line Regiments. National Park Service/T. Payton, 1997. https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/patriots-of-color-at-fort-schuyler-in-the-mohawk-valley.htm

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/patriots-of-color-at-fort-schuyler-in-the-mohawk-valley.htm “African Descended Soldiers at Fort Schuyler & in the Mohawk Valley

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The Community Origins:

The Afghan Jewish community’s earliest recorded presence in modern Afghanistan, is around the 10th or 11th century CE, thanks in part to a collection of Jewish writings known as the Afghan Geniza(more on this later) found in northern Afghanistan’s cave system. However it is highly likely that presence of a Jewish community in Afghanistan has been present as far back as the 7th Century CE. Due to Persian/Iranian Jews fleeing from persecution(The Jewish History of Afghanistan).

This does not include the long running belief that some of the Afghan tribes, such as the Pashtun, Durrani, and Yussafzai are descendants of the “10 lost tribes of Israel(more on this at another time)”. However genetic studies have for the most part disproven this claim(The Jewish History of Afghanistan/Q&A: Sara Y. Aharon on Jews of Afghanistan/Afghanistan. By Joseph Jacobs).

Two key population sources of the Afghan Jewish community were the neighboring communities based in modern Iran, Iranian Jews(Jewish Ethnic Diversity Part 11: The Jews of Persia, starting with Iran.)and those from Central Asia, the Bukharan Jews(Jewish Ethnic Diversity Part 15: The Bukharan Jews), two communities I had covered previously.

As trade along the Silk Road and social upheavals due to geopolitical events and religiously motivated persecutions had been the key factors in the community’s development and its future collapse.

The Silk Road, a major trade route of silk and other commodities linking China and the Mediterranean(Silk Road.Encyclopedia Britannica), had connected Jewish communities across Central and Western Asia. In particular in what is now Iran, Afghanistan, and central Asian countries such as Tajikistan. Because prior to the Safavid Iran(Persian) empire’s conversion to Shia Islam, the Jewish communities from modern Iran to Afghanistan and deeper into Central Asia were interconnected thanks in part to this trade network. However the riffs between the Muslim states due to the Safavid’s forceful conversions during the 16th century CE resulted in broke lines of communications between these communities because of hostilities(Könemann, 2004.p.501/Virtual Jewish World: Bukharan Jews). However these weren’t the only example of geopolitics having an effect on these communities, along with communities across Central and Western Asia had dealt with the initial wars of the Mongol Invasions during the early 1200s(The Jewish History of Afghanistan).

The Jewish communities prior to the Safavids were, despite the long distances in between them, were still connected to each under(Koplik (2015)p.17). Such as during the preceding Timurid Empire for example. Which has a notable historical tradition in the Afghan city of Balkh(more later), when the Jewish community was given a gated city quarter for their own livelihood(Shterenshis (2013)p.58).

However these political and religious disruptions didn’t always result in isolation for the Afghan community. In some cases the community would grow from welcoming in their fellow Jews fleeing from persecution in Iran(ex. the 1839 Allahdad Massacre in Mashhad, Iran) or later from the Soviet Union in the 1930s(Tsadik 2007, page 35/Rapport (2014)p.8).

During the community’s existence in Afghanistan, 3 cities were the primary residences of Afghan Jews. Balkh, Herat, and Kabul.

The 3 Cities of Jewish Afghanistan:

During the Afghan Jewish community’s existence there were 3 cities that were important for the community. Balkh, Herat, and Kabul. Starting with Balkh.

The city of Balkh, Afghanistan, is a city with a rich history in northern Afghanistan. From early Iron Age settlements, to being captured by Alexander the Great, serving as the capital of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom of Bactria and much more(Lhuillier, Bendezu-Sarmiento,& Marquis(2021)/Balkh. Encyclopedia Britannica).

Here would be one of the Afghan Jewish community’s homes. As Balkh would be the place of 9th century CE critic, Hiwi al-Balkhi, who has been suspected of being of Bukharan Jewish origin and was seen as a heretic by some. Along with Balkhi being a key center of Jewish with traditions of the biblical prophets Ezekiel and Jeremiah being buried there(a belief primarily shared by local Muslims). While also being awarded the gated city during the Timurid period(Koplik (2015)p.15-16/Shterenshis (2013)p.58/Balkh, Afghanistan:JV).

Evidence of the community in Balkh existence during the 19th Century CE, was from an account by Charles Yate, a British Administrator, during the aftermath of the 2nd Anglo-Afghan War(1878-80). Apart of a series of armed conflicts which the British Empire sought to extend influence in Afghanistan to counter Imperial Russia’s expansion into South Asia(Anglo-Afghan Wars. Encyclopedia Britannica). Yate mentions the community in his letters during the mid-late 1880s, stating “a considerable colony of Jews, who have a separate quarter of the village to themselves, and appeared, so far as we could judge, to be fair-looking men with most unmistakably Jewish features(Yate(1888)p.256/Barthold, Vasilii, Sivat (2014)p.13–14).”

While Balkh held its unique historical and cultural significance, it would also share this with Herat. A key center of the Afghan Jewish community that was also a key point of trade.

Herat, Afghanistan like Balkh has a rich history. As a principal city in western Afghanistan, it has long been of strategic, commercial and cultural value to the wider region. As its origins lies with Persian development of the area around 500 BCE near the Hari Rud River. As what would become Herat would be captured and witness Alexander the Great, the Seleucids, Parthians, the Hephthalites, all before becoming the western bastion of the Abbasid caliphate by the end of the 8th century CE. Ultimately witnesses the might of Genghis Khan along with the rest of Asia, before experiencing a revival under the Timurid Empire, with a renaissance on par with Florence(City of Herat:UNESCO/Grousset(1970).p.379, 465).

Within Herat evidence of Jewish culture consists of a Jewish cemetery, a public bath, and 5 synagogues.

The 5 synagogues in question are Yu Aw, Mulla Ashur, Shamail, Golkia, and Georgia. Of the 5 synagogues Mulla Ashur has remained in disrepair because of the government’s lack of a restoration budget. The Golkia synagogue has been turned into a mosque, but its architecture remains the same. After repairs Shamail was turned into a school. However Yu Aw, the largest synagogue in Herat had been more fortunate than the others. As it was the only synagogue to undergo proper preservation of its original characteristics and has been declared a historic site(The Struggle To Preserve Afghanistan’s Jewish Heritage).

The Yu Aw Synagogue is at least a century old, if not more. As it has a stone courtyard framed by a series of small rooms including a main prayer room which still has a raised platform where the torah would have been read. The high ceilings inside the synagogue’s prayer room are decorated in painted Persian-style floral patterns and motifs(Relics of old Afghanistan reveal Jewish past).

By the mid 20th century CE, Herat’s Jewish community had hovered around 280 families, a significant decline from a community that once numbered a thousands(Taliban approves conservation work on historic Afghan synagogue). As many from this region had left for Israel, the United States, and other countries resulting in this local community being gone by the 1970s(more on the Afghan Jewish community’s emigration later).

The third city that served as a major center of Jewish culture in Afghanistan was Kabul. Afghanistan’s current capital and largest city(Kabul. Encyclopedia Britannica).

Kabul origins reach as far back as 3500 years, as the settlement in this area has been mentioned by the Rigveda(the oldest Hindu scripture from c.1500 BCE)and by Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer, geographer, and mathematician, in the 2nd century CE. While changing hands being the Medes, the Achaemenid Persians, Alexander the Great and his successors, the Maurya, and Kushan empires. While also being a center of the religions of Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Hinduism(Kabul. Encyclopedia Britannica/del Castillo(2014)p.28/Emadi(2005)p.26/Runion(2007)p.41/Dupree(2014)p.299).

Just like Balkh and Herat, Kabul’s Jewish community had experienced the wealth of the Silk Road, which led to the Afghan Jewish community’s population being between 40,000-80,000, while also experiencing the socioeconomic and political disruptions caused by invasions. Particularly those by the Mongols during the 1200s, which devastated the community along with the population of the entire region(The Jewish History of Afghanistan).

However Kabul’s population had grown from refugees of fellow Jews fleeing persecution in Iran and the Soviet Union. As at times Afghanistan was one of the few Muslim countries in the region where they could practice their religion and culture freely, particularly during the 18 and 19th centuries(Tsadik 2007, page 35/Rapport (2014)p.8/The Struggle To Preserve Afghanistan’s Jewish Heritage).

There were times of mistreatment of the community in Kabul as well as throughout Afghanistan, as authorities enacted harsh anti-Jewish measures in 1870 triggering a mass migration into neighboring countries. However during the reign of Mohammad Nadir Shah or Nadir Shah, King of Afghanistan(1929-33), he reversed many of these anti-Jewish decrees and had give Jews equal rights as citizens. Given the community throughout Afghanistan a mass reprieve. Sadly this type of leadership was short lived, due to the assassination of Nadir Shah in 1933 which resulted in a return of harsh economic conditions. As Nazi propaganda entering the country complicated the situation further resulting in many Afghan Jews leaving or being confined to Herat, Balkh and Kabul(The Jewish History of Afghanistan).

These alternating moments of peace and turmoil didn’t stop the construction of the Kabul Synagogue in 1966. Also known as the “Jewish Mosque(Garfinkel (2013)).” The Kabul Synagogue helped served the spiritual life of Afghanistan’s roughly 5-6,000 remaining Jews during the mid-20th century(The Struggle To Preserve Afghanistan’s Jewish Heritage).

The two story synagogue in downtown Kabul contained two sanctuaries, next to a small courtyard, as the Jewish cemetery is not too far away(Judah(2002)/Garfinkel (2013)/Mehrdad(2018)). Due to the changing political climate of Afghanistan during the late 20th century and the present. The synagogue became abandoned as the remaining Afghan Jews fled due to better economic and living conditions in places like Israel, the USA, and Europe, as Afghanistan at this time was noted as being the only Muslim country during the 1960s that allowed its Jewish citizens to retain their citizenship when emigrating(Mehrdad(2018))but ultimately two major factors contributed to end of Afghanistan’s Jewish community. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the rise of the Taliban.

The USSR, the Taliban & the Last Jews of Afghanistan:

The USSR(today’s Russia)or the former Soviet Union’s impact on Afghanistan’s Jewish community(as well as the nation itself) is very pronounced. As early as the 1930s conditions in Central Asia due to famine and the Soviet Union’s treatment of their Jewish population. As these conditions resulted in at least 60,000 refugees, mostly Bukharan Jews fleeing into Afghanistan. However many of these refugees faced restrictions in locations they could reside such as Herat and Kabul along with their ability to work. While in some cases a number were sent back to the Soviet Union or elsewhere because of the fears of Afghan and British authorities that they would spread Soviet propaganda(Koplik(2015)p.85-87/Koplik (2003)36 (3):353–379/Roland (1989)p.349).

The conditions for the Jewish population in Afghanistan had worsened by the late 1930s due to Nazi influence in the country at the time. As the Jewish newspaper, the “Jewish Telegraph Agency” had reported that the Afghan Jews were being restricted in daily living(requiring to wear particular clothing, women restricted from markets, banned from riding horses), the type of work they can conduct(such as shoe polishing). While in 1935 an anti-Jewish riot broke out in Herat over an incident between Jewish and Muslim boys(Koplik (2003)36 (3):353–379/All Trades but Shoe-blacking Closed to Afghanistan Jews/Trials of Jews in Afghanistan Bared in Persia).

During World War II a number of Afghan Jews flee into British India and British Mandatory Palestine due to deteriorating living conditions. After the founding of Israel in 1948 a number of Afghan Jews had emigrated there and elsewhere that by 1969 the population within Afghanistan was around 2,000(Jalalzai(2024)/Trials of Jews in Afghanistan Bared in Persia). However by 1979 this will change again due to the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan.

In short the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan was the former USSR’s attempt at supporting the Afghan communist government in its conflict with anti-communist Muslim guerrillas during the Afghan War(1978–92) until withdrawing in mid-February 1989(Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Encyclopedia Britannica).

Between this conflict and the succeeding Afghan civil war millions of people were displaced including Afghanistan’s remaining Jewish population. As the winner of the conflict the Taliban made life extremely difficult for not only the handful of remaining Afghan Jews but also for other minorities(Jalalzai(2024)/Dorronsoro (2007)).

By the mid-late 1990s Afghanistan was mostly under the control of the Taliban, as the Afghan Jewish community held dwindled down to just 3 known persons during this period until 2021, when the last 2 remaining Afghan Jews left the country after the Taliban had returned to power after the United States and NATO withdrew its forces from the country, the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan fell and the Taliban led Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan returned(Jalalzai(2024)/The Jewish History of Afghanistan/The last Jews in Afghanistan argued so much the Taliban kicked them out of prison and stole their Torah/The Taliban in Afghanistan).

Of the 3 remaining Afghan Jews, the 2 men, the late Yitzhak Levi, and Zabulon Simentov. Are famous or more widely known due to the publicity of their history with each other, their efforts in preserving the Kabul Synagogue, and their interactions with the Taliban(Jalalzai(2024)/The Jewish History of Afghanistan/The last Jews in Afghanistan argued so much the Taliban kicked them out of prison and stole their Torah).

From the mid-1990s until the early 2000s, Yitzhak Levi and Zabulon Simentov would live in the old Kabul Synagogue as its caretakers to protect it from abandonment. Despite Simentov’s wife and children moving to Israel after the Taliban had taken over. However there was a problem. The two men did not get along and would fight with each other. Even to the point of getting the Taliban involved in their disputes. The late playwright Josh Greenfield, wrote the play “The Last Two Jews of Kabul” based on the two men(The Last Two Jews of Kabul/The Jewish History of Afghanistan).

The Taliban in the actions of purging non-Islamic materials have not only harassed and thrown the men in jail but also taken the remaining relics from the synagogue. Most notably a 15th century Torah scroll. Interesting enough their fighting with each other led to the Taliban not only placing them in jail, but kicking them out as the men had become so annoying(The last Jews in Afghanistan argued so much the Taliban kicked them out of prison and stole their Torah/The Jewish History of Afghanistan).

Sadly the feud between the two men would end in 2005 after the death of the elderly Levi, leaving Simentov, who at the time was believed to have been the last Afghan Jew living in Afghanistan. He initially didn’t want to move because he didn’t want the community’s heritage to end, a long with finding the missing Torah scroll. Another reason could be that his wife had been seeking a divorce. However in 2021 when the Taliban returned this all changed as Simentov had to escape with others fearing reprisals by the returning Taliban. By November of 2024 Simentov had arrived in Israel to the surprise of his family(Siddique (2021)/Jalalzai(2024)/Afghanistan’s last Jew arrives in Israel three years after fleeing Taliban rule).

However unbeknownst to Simentov, he had a cousin who was still living in Afghanistan the entire time him and Levi was. Her name is Tova Moradi. What had kept her hidden was that aside from her children, no one knew of her Jewish heritage. This would change after 2001, because during the 1990s, Moradi had hidden Yitzhak Levi in her home when the Taliban was looking for him. Levi would later publicly recall the story prior to his death in 2005. This became a concern for Moradi and her family when the Taliban came back into power in 2021. However with the help Joseph Friedberg, Danna Harman and more. So by October 2021, Tova Moradi, her family and many other Afghan refugees were able to escape from the Taliban first into neighboring Tajikistan, before Moradi moved onto Canada and with her the last remaining Jewish presence in Afghanistan(Jalalzai(2024)/“Woman now thought to be Afghanistan’s last Jew flees country”).

Remaining Details before Closing:

Before closing I will briefly go over the notable cultural aspects of the Afghan Jewish community, that makes them stand apart from their Iranian and Bukharan Jewish counterparts.

One of the customs for Yom Kippur(the Day of Atonement), in the Jewish tradition for Jews in Europe and America when acknowledging their sins during“Al Chet” prayer, it’s generally done by gently tapping their chest, however in the Afghan tradition the accounting for the sins is by preparing for a ritual flogging. This occurs after the evening service, when each male over bar mitzvah age was required to receive 39 strokes on their back with a soft leather flogger while Psalm 78 was read. After that, the rabbi would issue a pardon for the individual’s sins(During Yom Kippur Afghanistan’s Jews Are Only a Memory).

Another interesting custom that Afghan Jews have during Yom Kippur, is the type of candles they use for the holiday. While many western Jews use a lit a pair candles burn for an hour, while Afghan Jews would have candles that were over six feet tall, created for each of their synagogues. That are often held in place by a copper or clay candle holder, or sham’dan(During Yom Kippur Afghanistan’s Jews Are Only a Memory).

Another interesting feature of the Afghan Jewish community involves a trait that they share with their fellow Iranian and Bukharan Jews is the language family they share. Judeo-Persian. Judeo-Persian is the common name for both the literary and spoken forms of the Jewish Iranian language varieties. This family includes Judeo-Persian, Judeo-Tadjik/Tadzhik (also known as Bukharan), Judeo-Tat(Cuhuri / Juhuri / Dzhuhuri) the language of the Mountain Jews in Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan(Shapira, Dan. n.d. Judeo-Persian).

One of the most prominent examples of Afghan representation of Judeo-Persian is the Afghan Genizah. A collection of 11th-13th century CE documents found in the caves of found in caves in the Samangan province of Afghanistan. Written in Hebrew, Aramaic, Judeo-Arabic and Judeo-Persian. Currently the collection is at the National Library of Israel(“Ancient manuscripts indicate Jewish community once thrived in Afghanistan”/Shapira, Dan. n.d. Judeo-Persian).

Here below are two examples from the Afghan Genizah

For more examples please check out the brief examples of Afghan Jewish folk songs in the Gilaki dialect by a Afghan Jew from Herat, Afghanistan in the videos in the bibliography section.

With that we have covered the interesting story of the Afghan Jews. We have journeyed across Iraq, Iran, the Caucuses, Central Asia, India and China. Following the histories and travels of the branch of the Jewish community tied in unique and various ways to the empires of Persia. Next time we will be heading back west to Syria.

Bibliography: History of the Jews in Afghanistan

The Jewish History of Afghanistan

The last Jews in Afghanistan argued so much the Taliban kicked them out of prison and stole their Torah

Q&A: Sara Y. Aharon on Jews of Afghanistan

Aharon, Sara Y. (2011). From Kabul to Queens: the Jews of Afghanistan and their move to the United States. American Sephardi Federation.

Woman now thought to be Afghanistan’s last Jew flees countryAP

Reflections of an Afghan Jew

Afghanistan. By Joseph Jacobs

Jews of Afghanistan: A History of Tolerance and Diversity

Jewish Ethnic Diversity Part 15: The Bukharan Jews

Jewish Ethnic Diversity Part 11: The Jews of Persia, starting with Iran.

Virtual Jewish World: Bukharan Jews

Afghanistan Virtual Jewish History Tour

Britannica Editors (2026, May 19). Silk Road. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Silk-Road-trade-route

Akiner, Shirin (2004). The Caspian: Politics, Energy and Security. Taylor & Francis. p. 158.

Hattstein, Markus, and Peter Delius, editors. Islam: Art and Architecture. Könemann, 2004. p.501

Shterenshis, Michael (2013). Tamerlane and the Jews. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 58.

Between Foreigners and Shi’is, Daniel Tsadik, Stanford University Press, 2007, page 35.

Allahdad Massacre

Rapport, Evan (2014). Greeted With Smiles: Bukharian Jewish Music and Musicians in New York. Oxford University Press. p. 8.

Calmard, J. Cultural and Religious Cross-Fertilization between Central Asia and the Indo-Persian World. 2003: UNESCO. pp. 557–561.

Image: Afghan Immigrants. Mashiach Gul and Daniel Gul president of the Afghan Jewish community in British Mandatory Palestine, 1917. ID D1022-041:National Photo Collection of Israel, Photography dept. Government Press Office(https://gpophotoeng.gov.il/fotoweb/Grid.fwx?search=D1022-041.jpg#Preview1)

Britannica Editors (2025, November 7). Balkh. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Balkh

Lhuillier, Johanna, Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento, & Philippe Marquis, (2021). “Ancient Bactra: New Data on the Iron Age Occupation of the Bactra Oasis” , in Archaeology of Central Asia during the 1st millennium BC, from the beginning of the Iron Age to the Hellenistic period: Proceedings from the Workshop held at 10th ICAANE.

Koplik, S. (2015). A Political and Economic History of the Jews of Afghanistan. Brill. p.15-16, 85-87, 111.

Koplik, S. (2003). The Demise of Afghanistan’s Jewish Community and the Soviet Refugee Crisis (1932–1936). Iranian Studies, 36(3), 353–379. doi:10.1080/021086032000139131

Yate, Major Charles Edward (1888). Northern Afghanistan, or, Letters from the Afghan Boundary Commission. Edinburgh & London: William Blackwood & Sons. p. 256.

Vladimirovich Barthold, Vasilii; Soucek, Sivat (2014). An Historical Geography of Iran. Princeton University Press. p.13–14.

City of Herat:UNESCO

Grousset, R. (1970). The empire of the steppes: A history of Central Asia (N. Walford, Trans.). Rutgers University Press. (Original work published 1939) p.379,465

Images: Afghanistan — Herat, 1976, Box: 1, Folder: 1. Zeva Oelbaum Photographs, ASF AR 76. American Sephardi Federation. https://archives.cjh.org/repositories/4/archival_objects/83263 Accessed July 07, 2026.

Images: Afghanistan — Kabul, 1976, Box: 1, Folder: 2. Zeva Oelbaum Photographs, ASF AR 76. American Sephardi Federation. https://archives.cjh.org/repositories/4/archival_objects/83264 Accessed July 07, 2026.

The Struggle To Preserve Afghanistan’s Jewish Heritage

Relics of old Afghanistan reveal Jewish past

“International Survey of Jewish Monuments: The Yu Aw synagogue in Herat, Afghanistan”. International Survey of Jewish Monuments. Archived from the original on September 1, 2011.

Ittig, Annette (April 5, 2005). “Documentation of Afghanistan Synagogues”. International Survey of Jewish Monuments. Archived from the original on June 22, 2007.

Taliban approves conservation work on historic Afghan synagogue

Image: An Afghan worker reconstructs part of the Yu Aw synagogue in Herat, Afghanistan. (AFP via Getty/Taliban approves conservation work on historic Afghan synagogue)

Images: Yu Aw, the largest synagogue in Herat and the only synagogue to undergo proper preservation of its original characteristics, has been declared a historic site. Herat’s Jewish bathhouse is more than 250 years old and has been partially demolished without legal permission. Photos by Shapoor Saber(The Struggle To Preserve Afghanistan’s Jewish Heritage).

Leslie, J. (2026, June 4). Kabul. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Kabul

del Castillo, Graciana (2 April 2014). Guilty Party: The International Community in Afghanistan. Xlibris Corporation. p. 28.

Emadi, Hafizullah (2005). Culture and Customs of Afghanistan. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 26.

Runion, Meredith L. (2007). The History of Afghanistan. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.41

Dupree, Louis (14 July 2014). Afghanistan. Princeton University Press. p. 299.

Jalalzai, Freshta (8 March 2024). “The Little-Known Story of Afghanistan’s Last Jew”. New Lines Magazine.

Garfinkel, Jonathan (May 29, 2013). “A Congregation of One”. Tablet Magazine.

Mehrdad, Ezzatullah (November 28, 2018). “Afghanistan’s last Jew fights to keep his home — the country’s sole synagogue”. Times of Israel.

Judah, Tim (January 4, 2002). “A very private war”. The Guardian.

Joan G. Roland (1989). The Jewish Communities of India: Identity in a Colonial Era. Transaction Publishers. p.349.

All Trades but Shoe-blacking Closed to Afghanistan Jews

Trials of Jews in Afghanistan Bared in Persia

Krastev, Nikola (19 June 2007). “U.S.: Afghan Jews Keep Traditions Alive Far From Home”

Britannica Editors (2026, June 8). Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Soviet-invasion-of-Afghanistan

Dorronsoro, Gilles. (2007). Kabul at War (1992-1996) : State, Ethnicity and Social Classes. South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal. 10.4000/samaj.212.

The Taliban in Afghanistan

Siddique, Abubakar (September 10, 2021). “Last Afghan Jew Leaves Amid Minority Exodus In Fear Of Taliban”. Radio Free Europe.

The Last Two Jews of Kabul

Afghanistan’s last Jew arrives in Israel three years after fleeing Taliban rule

“Woman now thought to be Afghanistan’s last Jew flees country”. Independent.

“Woman now thought to be Afghanistan’s last Jew flees country”. AP NEWS. 2021-10-29.

During Yom Kippur Afghanistan’s Jews Are Only a Memory Atlanta Jewish Times 9-16-2021.

Shapira, Dan. n.d. Judeo-Persian. Jewish Language Website, Sarah Bunin Benor (ed.). Los Angeles: Jewish Language Project. https://www.jewishlanguages.org/judeo-persian. Attribution: Creative Commons Share-Alike 4.0 International.

“Ancient manuscripts indicate Jewish community once thrived in Afghanistan”. www.cbsnews.com. 3 January 2013.

Images: A letter dealing with financial and family matters (Afghan Genizah collection at the National Library of Israel); 11th century. Next here is a fragment of a letter, preserved in the collection, was sent from a woman named Nazuk bat Yosef to her relative Yehuda ben Daniel(Shapira, Dan. n.d. Judeo-Persian . Jewish Language Website, Sarah Bunin Benor (ed.). Los Angeles: Jewish Language Project. https://www.jewishlanguages.org/judeo-persian. Attribution: Creative Commons Share-Alike 4.0 International).

Visuals and Audio for those on the go:

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Origins of the Bosporus Kingdom:

The Kingdom of the Bosporus, or the Bosporan Kingdom(or the Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus) is ultimately a result of the blending of Greek, Scythian, and other local cultures located where the Black Sea meets the Sea of Azov, between modern day Ukraine and Russia. Forming between the 480-438 BCE during the 5th Century BCE, the Greek colonies such as Panticapaeum/Pantikapaion(today’s Kerch), Nymphaeum and Myrmekion on the Ukrainian side, with Panticapaeum being the most significant city in the region. While key cities like Phanagoria and Kepoi across the Kerch strait(the waterway that links the Azov and Black seas) in modern day Russia. Would make up the eastern portion of the kingdom(Netchev(2026)/Hind(1994) p.476–511/Minns(1911)p.286–287).

Prior to the kingdom’s formation this region of the Black Sea due to its trade ties with the Aegean, had a long or strong Greek or Hellenic influence but due to its isolation from mainland Greece, this culture hybridized with the surrounding native local population. Resulting in the Greek-Scythian culture of the region. Such as the ruling elite of the Bosporans presenting themselves to their Greek subjects with the title archon(magistrate or ruler) while to their non-Greek subjects they presented themselves as kings(Kozlovskaya(2017)p.173/Moreno(2007) p.168/archon. Encyclopedia Britannica).

According to the Greek historian, Diodorus Siculus(Diod. Sicul.12.31.1), that between 480-438 BCE, the Kingdom of the Bosporus was governed by the Archaeanactidae dynasty, until they were either overthrown or succeeded through another means, by a tyrant of Thracian origins, Spartocus, the founder of the Spartocid dynasty. However more recently it has been proposed that Spartocus was more likely to be of Greco-Scythian heritage(Minns(1911)p.286–287/Moreno(2007) p.168).

The Spartocid dynasty:

Spartocus I would begin the Spartocid dynasty of the Bosporan Kingdom, reigning from around 438-432/1 BCE before being succeeded by his son Satyrus I (Trofimova(2007).p.11–12). Satyrus I would preside over strengthen ties with Athens and expanding the kingdom’s influence over more of Crimea but died during the siege of Theodosia leaving the kingdom to his sons Gorgippus and Leucon I(Kinzl,(2010) p.145/Dinarchus p.1.43/Moreno(2007) p.168).

Gorgippus would die early in his joint reign with his brother, leaving Leucon I(c.389 to 349BCE) the sole ruler. Leucon would go on to expand Bosporan power. From continuing his father’s wars of expansion with the goal of ruling over all of the Greek colonies in the Bosporus or around Crimea. He would also make the Sindi people of the Taman peninsula and eastern Black Sea his vassals (Burstein(1974)401–402/Tokhtas’ev,(2006).1–62/Kingdom of the Bosporus. Encyclopedia Britannica).

Leucon would be one of greatest kings of the Bosporan Kingdom, or at least of the Spartocid dynasty. However after the death of his son Paerisades I(c.347-311/9 BCE), the kingdom would descend into civil war amongst Paerisades’ sons. With the ultimate victor being Eumelos with his Sarmatian allies against his brothers and their Scythian allies(H. Minns(2011)p.578/Kalashnik(2007)p.12/Aruz(2006)p.163).

Eumelos would reunite the kingdom and enter into another period of expansion with influence and relations with the Greeks of Pontus in Asia Minor. However Eumelos would only have a short reign as he would die in carriage accident(Head(1982)p.70. Diod. Sicul.20.24.1-5, 20.25.1-5). Eumelos would be succeeded by his son, Spartocus III(c. 304-284 BCE). Spartocus would reestablish trade relations with Athens receiving honors from the city(Oliver(2007)p.124-5, 231, 237).

Throughout its nearly 400 years as an independent state, the Kingdom of the Bosporus, would be would embark as a key trading partner for the Greeks of Asia Minor and the Aegean, especially Athens. As the Bosporus would trade in grain, fish, and slaves for silver and other commodities from mainland Greece, while also taking care of the pirate threat in the Black Sea(Kingdom of the Bosporus. Encyclopedia Britannica/Moreno(2007) p.171-2).

However the Bosporus Kingdom would not maintain this status by the end of the 2nd Century BCE. During the reign of Paerisades V, the Bosporan Kingdom was dealing with a serious problem. Involving the Scythians and their allies to the north and west, the conflicts with Tauric Chersonese and the intervention of the King of Pontus, Mithridates VI.

However before we cover to the Bosporus’s encounter with the King of Pontus let’s chart the path of its northern neighbor, Scythian Crimea, as they both will share the same experience with Mithridates VI.

Scythian Crimea:

The Bosporan Kingdom during its history had been sharing Crimea(northwestern Crimea)with the entity known as the Scythian Kingdom of Crimea, Scythia minor or Scythian Crimea(we will be using the latter). Scythian Crimea was formed from the collapse of the former Pontic Scythian kingdom, in the wake of the growing power of the Sarmatians during the 3rd Century BCE. Resulting in Scythian Crimea being one of the few remaining independent enclaves of Scythian rule in the region of the Black Sea(Batty 2007, p.204-214/Ivantchik 2018).

Scythian Crimea would stretch between the Crimean foothills or steppe to the southern edges of the Southern Bug and Dnipro(Dnieper)rivers to the northwest(Melyukova 1990,p.97–110).

This shift to southeastern Ukraine resulted in significant changes in the cultural lifestyle of the Scythians of this kingdom. As mentioned before the Scythians of the Pontic steppe had a nomadic centered lifestyle, however the people of Scythian Crimea had become primarily pastoralists and farmers(Ivantchik 2018/Sulimirski & Taylor 1991, p.576). This would not be the only change the Scythians of southeastern Ukraine would undergo. As they would intermarry with the earlier inhabitants of the mountains of Crimea, the Tauri. While becoming hellenized by the neighboring Greeks, who they shared Crimea and nearby areas with(Tauri. Encyclopedia Britannica/Sulimirski & Taylor 1991, p.576/Ivantchik 2018).

This blending of cultures would be best seen from the 2nd Century BCE site of Scythian Crimea’s capital of Scythian Neapolis.

Scythian Neapolis:

Scythian Neapolis(known as Kermenchik), was positioned in Crimea on the outskirts of present day Simferopol near the mountains in south central Crimea(Ivantchik 2018/Ivantchik, A. (2019)). As the capital was positioned in an area near forests and rich vegetation(Zaytsev 2004).

The city had a defensive stone wall encircling it, with a gate and two defensive towers. As these defensive measures abd others can be seen as a method against the Sarmatians further to the north and other opponents(Ivantchik, Zaytsev, 2006, 340-341/Rice 1957). However it is from the materials and structures within the walls that we see Greek influenced architecture. Shown primarily at the southern palace building complex, consisting of two storied megaron, with evidence of a tiled roof and thick walls, later limestone construction, with other structures, such as the heroon(shine) to the Scythian noble, Argotus and a mausoleum to Skiluros, one of the kings of Scythia Crimea(Zaytsev 2004/Ivantchik 2018/Makarov 2019).

Meanwhile the more you move away from the palace complex, the less elaborate, complex or the more modest the structures and homes become aside from the public buildings that were based on Greek architecture(Bashilov, Davis-Kimball & Yablonsky 1995). While the catacombs in the Eastern Necropolis were still representative of Scythian beliefs with Greek influences(Kazarnitsky 2017).

Other Relations in Southeastern Ukraine:

Scythian Crimea when it came to its neighbors and the world beyond had a fascinating and dynamic relationship between themselves and the aforementioned Sarmatians to their north, and Greeks around the Black Sea. Especially the Greeks they shared Crimea with, the Bosporus Kingdom in the east and the city of Chersonesus towards the southwest.

In short the city of Chersonesus, or Tauric Chersonesos, was a Greek colony in western Crimea near the modern day Sevastopol. That was founded either in the 6th or 5th Century BCE(Chersonesos project/Chersonesos of Taurica/Chersonese TauricaUA). This city-state would become a major part of the power dynamics in Crimea, while Scythia Crimea would generally have positive relations with the Bosporus Kingdom, the same cant be said when it came to Chersonesus. For example

the royal houses of the Bosporans and the Scythians had matrimonial ties with each other. The widowed Bosporan queen, Kamasarye II, had remarried the Scythian noble Argotos. While the daughter of the Scythian king, Skilurus, had married into the royal family of the Bosporus(Ivantchik 2018).

However existing evidence shows this type of relationship with Chersonesus, was not present, as evident in the wars of expansion by the Skilurus and his son and successor Palacus against Chersonesus. As Palacus would do so against a weakened Bosporus. Forcing the Bosporan king, Paerisades V along with Chersonesus to appeal to the King of Pontus, Mithridates VI for aid(Ivantchik 2018/Batty 2007,p.204-214/McGing,1986, p.51).

The End of Independence:

Between 110-109/7 BCE, Paerisades V of the Spartocid dynasty would enter talks with General Diophantus, representative of Mithridates VI, the King of Pontus, on the other side of the Black Sea based in modern day Turkey(McGing,1986, p.51/Mark(2017)). Prior to this meeting Diophantus had been successful in aiding Chersonesus, and repealing the Scythians defeating the last attested king of Scythian Crimea, Palacus, as materials concerning their leaders currently ends at him(Ivantchik 2018/Batty 2007,p.204-214).

However Diophantus’s meeting with Paerisades wasn’t one of allies meeting as fair partners. Diophantus came with a message from his lord, Mithridates. Surrender the Kingdom of the Bosporus to him, as Paerisades could no longer managed his kingdom effectively without his aid(McGing,1986, p.51). So Paerisades V, the last Spartocid king of the Bosporus, agreed to surrender his kingdom to the framed King of Pontus l, Mithridates VI. However a Scythian known as Saumacus, who Paerisades might had adopted, had begun a revolt, that resulted in Paerisades’ death and Diophantus fleeing(McGing,1986, p.51-2/Minns(1911)p.286–287).

Diophantus would return to Crimea with a large fleet and put down the rebellion. Fully securing the Bosporan kingdom as a dependency of Pontus. Afterwards he and the general,Neoptolemus, would subdue the Scythians while defeating their Sarmatian allies, the Roxolani(McGing,1986, p.53-54).

By 107 BCE southeastern Ukraine and its southern coast were under the control of Mithridates VI of Pontus, who would go on to rule the region as apart of his kingdom for about 44 years. However Mithridates time as an imperial ruler in the Black Sea would end in 63 BCE(Mark(2017)/Simpson(2024)).

For you see during much of his reign Mithridates VI, was locked in three wars with the new power of the Mediterranean world. The Roman Republic(Mark(2017)/Simpson(2024)). During the last of these wars, Mithridates would be defeated by the Roman general Pompey and forced to flee to Panticapaeum, the former capital of the Bosporan kingdom. There he tried to rally his forces but it would not be. As his sons had sided with Rome against him. As his son , who would become Pharnaces II would lead a revolt against his father(Mark(2017)/Simpson(2024)). Within his citadel Mithridates would take his own life instead of being captured. The Roman general, Pompey out of respect for Mithridates had him buried in honor at the place of his birth(Mark(2017)). Meanwhile Crimea, this region of southeastern Ukraine, would become a client state of Rome(Netchev(2026).

We had an interesting journey through this part of the history of Ukraine and the Black Sea. Next when we visited it is going to get more complicated. As always thank you for your time and reading my work. For more information on this chapter of Ukraine’s history please check out my bibliography section below.

Bibliography:

Bosporan Kingdom

Bosporan Kingdom:EncyclopediaUA

Bosporan Civil War

Bosporan wars of expansion

Britannica Editors (2017, April 27). Kingdom of the Bosporus. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Kingdom-of-the-Bosporus

Netchev, S. (2026, March 31). Map of the Bosporan Kingdom, c.100 CE: Gateway Between Steppe, Caucasus, and Rome. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19765/map-of-the-bosporan-kingdom-c100-ce/

Hind, John. “The Bosporan Kingdom”. In Lewis, D. M.; Boardman, J.; Hornblower, S.; Ostwald, M. (eds.). (1994)The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. VI - The 4th Century BC. Cambridge: CUP. p.476–511.

Minns, Ellis (1911). “Bosporus Cimmerius” . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p.286–287.

Kozlovskaya, Valeriya (2017). The Northern Black Sea in Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. p.173.

Moreno, Alfonso (2007). Feeding the Democracy: The Athenian Grain Supply in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries BC. Oxford University Press. p.168, 171–172.

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Archon. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved June 25, 2026, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/archon

Britannica Editors (2023, October 5). archon. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/archon-ancient-Greek-magistrate

Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica: 12.31.1, 20.24.1-5, 20.25.1-5

Trofimova, Anna A. (2007). Greeks on the Black Sea: ancient art from the Hermitage. Los Angeles, USA: Getty Publications. p.11–12.

Dinarchus. Against Demosthenes. Cambridge MA (USA): Harvard University Press. p.1.43.

Kinzl, Konrad H. (11 January 2010). A Companion to the Classical Greek World. Wiley. p. 145.

Burstein, Stanley M. (1974). “The War between Heraclea Pontica and Leucon I of Bosporus”. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 4th Quarter: 401–402.

Tokhtas’ev, Sergei R. (2006). “The Bosporus and Sindike in the Era of Leukon I. New Epigraphic Publications”. Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 1-2. 12 (1–2): 1–62. doi:10.1163/157005706777968915.

Minns, Ellis Hovell (2011). Scythians and Greeks: A Survey of Ancient History and Archaeology on the North Coast of the Euxine from the Danube to the Caucasus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 578.

Kalashnik, Yuri (2007). Greeks on the Black Sea: Ancient Art from the Hermitage. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. p. 12.

Aruz, Joan (2006). The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Perspectives on the Steppe Nomads of the Ancient World. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 163.

G. J. Oliver (6 September 2007). War, Food, and Politics in Early Hellenistic Athens. OUP Oxford. p.124-5, 231, 237

Head, Duncan. (1982) Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars. p. 70.

Image: Ruins of Panticapaeum, Encyclopædia Britannica.https://www.britannica.com/place/Kingdom-of-the-Bosporus#/media/1/74787/121265

Scythia Crimea:

Batty, Roger (2007). Rome and the Nomads: The Pontic-Danubian Realm in Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.204-214.

Ivantchik, Askold. “SCYTHIANS.” Encyclopaedia Iranica. Published April 25, 2018. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/scythians/

Ivantchik, A. (2019). The Scythian Kingdom in the Crimea in the 2nd century BC and its relations with the Greek states in the North Pontic region, ACSS 25, 2019, 220-254. Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 25. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700577-12341351

Melyukova, A. I. (1990). “The Scythians and Sarmatians”. In Sinor, Denis (ed.). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 97–117.

Britannica Editors (2025, July 4). Tauri. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tauri

Tauri

Sulimirski, Tadeusz; Taylor, T. F. (1991). “The Scythians”. In Boardman, John; Edwards, I. E. S.; Hammond, N. G. L.; Sollberger, E.; Walker, C. B. F. (eds.). The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries B.C. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 3. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 547–590.

Zaytsev, Yury P. (2004). The Scythian Neapolis (2nd Century BC to 3rd century AD) : Investigations into the Graeco-Barbarian City on the Northern Black Sea Coast. Oxford, United Kingdom: British Archaeological Reports.

Ivantchik, A. Rev.: Yurij Zaytsev, The Scythian Neapolis (2nd Century BC to 3rd century AD) : Investigations into the Graeco-Barbarian City on the Northern Black Sea Coast. BAR International Series, 1219. Oxford, 2004, ACSS, 12, 2006, 340-341.

Smekalova, Tatiana & Fedor, Lisetskii & Buryak, Zhanna. (2017). Study of the late scythian settlement and agricultural-residential complex of Borut-Khane in the piedmont crimea by natural science methods. Stratum Plus. 57-80.

Image: Tomb of the king Skilurus in Scythian Neapolis O.Mustafin on Wikimedia

Makarov, Igor A. (2019). “On the Epitaph for Argotas from Neapolis Scythica”. Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia. 25 (3): 205–219. doi:10.1163/15700577-12341350. S2CID 226788077

Bashilov, V. A.; Davis-Kimball, Jeannine; Yablonsky, Leonid T. (1995). Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age. Berkeley, United States: Zinat Press.

“University of Texas at Austin Institute of Classical Archaeology Chersonesos project”. Archived from the original on 15 September 2013.

Archaeological Museum, Crimea, National Preserve ‘Chersonesos of Taurica’, Ukraine

Chersonese TauricaUA

Image: Chersonese Taurica(Tauric Chersonesos): floor mosaic (3rd-2nd century BC).Chersonese Taurica: floor mosaic (3rd-2nd century BC).UA

Mark, J. J. (2017, December 04). Mithridates VI. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Mithridates_VI/

Image: Artist, U. (2018, February 20). Mithridates VI. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/8139/mithridates-vi/

Simpson, R.H. (2024, March 27). Mithradates VI Eupator. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mithradates-VI-Eupator

McGing, Brian Charles. The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 1986, p.50-54

Netchev, S. (2026, March 31). Map of the Bosporan Kingdom, c.100 CE: Gateway Between Steppe, Caucasus, and Rome. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/19765/map-of-the-bosporan-kingdom-c100-ce/

Audio & Visuals for those on the go:

Ukraine 🇺🇦 support groups:

Summer Sunshine Trucks 2026: Malcolm Nance Please help the Chief, Spy - Malcolm get a Truck for his old Unit, and the 65th Mechanized Brigade. Team Jedi. May the Force be with you.

Summer Sunshine Trucks 2026: Operator Starsky Please help get the Captain, get a Truck to help the 11th Border Guard Forpost Brigade.

https://commission.europa.eu/topics/eu-solidarity-ukraine/helping-ukrainians-how-you-can-donate-and-engage_en “Helping Ukrainians: how you can donate and engage”

https://u24.gov.ua “OFFICIAL FUNDRAISING PLATFORM OF UKRAINE”

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In short it can be said that this Middle English term of Anglo-French origins is one that commands respect for the woman who bears it(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Madam). When it came to Sara Breedlove, she would wear it not only with pride but would be known by it. As she would make this not only part of her name, but her legacy. As Madam C.J. Walker.

“Perseverance is my motto!” Madam C.J. Walker: Madam C.J. Walker Bio

Beginnings:

Sarah Breedlove was born on December 23, 1867, on the same plantation her parents, Owen and Minerva Anderson Breedlove, had been slaves prior to the end of the American Civil War, near Delta, Louisiana. She would be the 5th child and 2nd daughter out of 6 children(Michals(2015)/Madam C.J. Walker Bio/About Madam C. J. Walker).

Though she was born free, she and her family had to deal with a hard life as sharecroppers in the cotton fields(Michals(2015)). Sharecropping was in short an economic system that existed prior to the American Civil War throughout the world. That comprised of sharecroppers renting farmable land from farmers, such as plantation owners, who owned large plots of land. In addition to this land, the sharecroppers rented supplies and equipment from the farmer or plantation owners to work the land. Depending on the contract, the sharecropper gave half of their harvest or half of the proceeds from selling their harvest to the farmer in lieu of rent. From the remaining proceeds, the sharecropper paid back the sum of the rented supplies and equipment, usually with interest. Any leftover income was kept by the sharecropper. In the US sharecroppers could be any ethnic or racial background. However this system was exploited by the wealthy, especially of Black Americans during the late 19th to mid-20th century(Sharecroppers).

(More on Sharecroppers another time).

This was the system Sarah had spin her childhood with her family until the age of 7 when her parents mysteriously died a year apart from each other(First her mother then her father). She would live with her elder sister, Louvenia, and continue working in the cotton fields with her in Delta and nearby Vicksburg, Mississippi. However that would come to an end when Sara was 14, when married Moses McWilliams to escape from her abusive brother-in-law, Jesse Powell(About Madam C. J. Walker/Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire). Sara and Moses would have one daughter together, Lelia (later be known as A’Lelia Walker) in 1885, 2 years prior to Moses’s mysterious death((About Madam C. J. Walker/Michals(2015)).

Sarah and her 4 year old daughter, Lelia, would move to St. Louis, Missouri in 1889, to join her 4 brothers. Who had moved there and became established barbers. While living in St. Louis, she would work as laundress(washerwoman) and cook. Working for $1.50 a day while trying to ensure that Lelia attended school. Along with networking with other residents, members of the St. Paul African Methodist Episcopal Church and the National Association of Colored Women. Whose leading members would serve as inspiration for her(Michals(2015)/About Madam C. J. Walker/Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire/Madam C.J. Walker Bio).

By 1894 she would try marrying again to John Davis, but they would separate and divorce after 9 years due to John’s treatment of her and his unreliability. This would be coupled with her health becoming more of an issue along with her losing her hair. Due to most Americans by the early 20th century lacking indoor plumbing and electricity, bathing was basically a luxury. As a result, Sarah and many other women at the time were going bald because they washed their hair so infrequently, leaving it vulnerable to environmental hazards such as pollution, bacteria and lice(Michals(2015)/About Madam C. J. Walker/Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire/Madam C.J. Walker Bio).

However by the 1904 World’s Fair in St. Louis, Sarah’s life had begin to improve and it was going to change once more upon meeting Annie (Turnbo/Turbo)Malone, another black woman entrepreneur who specialized in hair products(Michals(2015)/Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire/Madam C.J. Walker Bio).

Sarah becomes the Businesswoman, Madam C.J. Walker:

In 1904 Sarah after experimenting with a number of products and home remedies, had begun using products made by Annie Malone. After using Malone’s products for a year and getting positive results, Sara went from a customer to working for Malone for a period of time being a local sales representative for Malone’s business in St. Louis. It was during this time she began dating Charles Joseph Walker. A man who worked in advertising and newspapers. Their relationship would take Sarah’s life in a brand new direction(Michals(2015)/Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire/Madam C.J. Walker Bio).

Sarah and Charles would marry prior to moving to Denver, Colorado, to help her sister-law and other Black women there with their hair care needs. However it was in Denver when she would begin to transition from a sales agent for hair and cosmetics products for Black women, to a businesswoman who produces such products. It was through Charles knowledge of advertising and marketing that she began to launch her new business and product line. With one significant change, to use a more recognizable name for her brand. So Sarah Walker, would become Madam CJ Walker. Selling Madam Walker’s Wonderful Hair Grower, a scalp conditioning and healing formula, which she claimed had been revealed to her in a dream(Michals(2015)/About Madam C. J. Walker/Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire/Madam C.J. Walker Bio).

According to her account “A big black man appeared to me and told me what to mix up for my hair. Some of the remedy was grown in Africa, but I sent for it, put it on my scalp, and in a few weeks my hair was coming in faster than it had ever fallen out.” It was to be called “Madam Walker’s Wonderful Hair Grower.” With Charles’s assistance and her initial investment of $1.25, Madam Walker was charting a new career path(Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire/Madam C.J. Walker Bio/Michals(2015)/About Madam C. J. Walker).

By 1907 Walker and her husband were traveling across the American South and East, going door to door selling her products to the Black community. She would give lectures and demonstrations of her products, particularly of her “Walker Method” consisting her own formula for pomade, brushing, and the use of heated combs. Alongside these efforts she would train people on the use and sell of her products. They would be known as Walker agents and “beauty culturists”. They would become so important to her, that Walker and her husband would establish in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the Lelia College of Beauty Culture, named after her daughter, Lelia. In order to train her employees in the “Walker System” advocating economic independence, especially for Black women(Madam C.J. Walker Bio/Michals(2015)/About Madam C. J. Walker/Madam C.J. Walker. Encyclopedia Britannica).

By 1910 Walker had established a new base of operations in Indianapolis, Indiana. Here her company “Madam C. J. Walker Manufacturing Company” would be apart of the nation’s largest inland manufacturing center. As her company would contribute a factory, a hair and manicure salon, and another training school(Madam C.J. Walker Bio/Michals(2015)/About Madam C. J. Walker/Madam C.J. Walker. Encyclopedia Britannica). During this time her daughter A’Lelia (Lelia), would take over her business’ operations in Pittsburgh(Koehn, Dwojeski, Grundy,Helms, &Miller (2007) p.12).

Contrary to popular belief Madam C.J. Walker did not invent the straightening comb, the hot comb and/or chemical perms. As far as the hot comb, it would appear that the Frenchman, Marcel Grateau , had popularized it in Europe during the 1870s. As it would appear in Sears and Bloomingdale’s catalogs in the 1880s(About Madam C. J. Walker/Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire).

“I am not satisfied in making money for myself. I endeavor to provide employment for hundreds of the women of my race.”Madam C.J. Walker: Madam C.J. Walker Bio

With her team of researchers, manufacturers, beauticians, salespeople or “Walker Agents”, Madam C.J. Walker Manufacturing Company would become a great success. Making the equivalent of multimillion dollars today(Madam C.J. Walker Bio). However profit was not Madam Walker’s life goal. It was to make life better for not only her and her daughter, but to help others, especially other Black Americans. As she would use her business to help expand employment opportunities for Black Americans, especially Black women, due to the nature of segregation in the United States. Particularly in the American South. From organizing her employees into a national association, such as the National Negro Cosmetics Manufacturers Association in 1917. Because her intentions were “I am not merely satisfied in making money for myself,” “I am endeavoring to provide employment for hundreds of women of my race(Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire/Madam C.J. Walker Bio/Michals(2015)/About Madam C. J. Walker).

As result at least 40,000 men and women US, Central America, and the Caribbean(as she would expand her business outside of the USA), would be working for her company. Ultimately resulting in her becoming first female self-made millionaire in America with documented evidence that could prove it(Guinness World Records/Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire).

Later in Life:

By 1912 Madam Walker and Charles had divorced, but she kept her name. Prior to making New York her home, while leaving the day to day operations of her Indianapolis factory to the forelady, Madam Walker had become more invested in social and political issues of the time. Consisting of the Harlem renaissance(a topic for another time be see more in the citations), supporting the construction of the African-American branches of the YMCA(Young Men’s Christian Association) and YWCA(Young Women’s Christian Association) in Indianapolis, donating at least $5,000 to the NAACP’s anti-lynching campaign, while also supporting efforts to save Frederick Douglass’ Washington DC home and the rights of Black American soldiers who served in France during World War I. Along with other efforts in charities, educational opportunities, and more(About Madam C. J. Walker/Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire/Madam C.J. Walker Bio/Michals(2015)/Madam C.J. Walker. Encyclopedia Britannica).

By 1919 Madam Walker’s health began to fail due to the stress and hardship that had taken a toil upon her body. That by May 1919, at the age of 51, she had died from complications of hypertension and kidney failure her Irvington-on-Hudson, New York estate, Villa Lewaro. That along with the Madam Walker Legacy Center and other sites tied to her and her family are historic landmarks. Especially through the efforts of her daughter A’Lelia Walker(who had her own impact in Black History) and Madam Walker’s great great-granddaughter, A’Lelia Bundles(“Madam C. J. Walker”. Indiana Historical Society./Madam C.J. Walker Bio/Michals(2015)/Madam C.J. Walker. Encyclopedia Britannica).

Why Madam?

One interesting aspect of Madam CJ Walker, was her use of Madam as part of her name and branding. With the Madam in front she would have the advantage of French cache. As French fashions and style was very influential during the early 20th century. This coupled with the fact that it would have undermined a tendency of many White Americans of only addressing a Black person by their name without the honorifics of Mister, Miss, and Mrs or worse “Aunt/Auntie” and “Uncle” especially when they have no personal ties with the individual during the time of segregation and Jim Crow(Dubé-Senécal (2024) 38 (4): 567–588/Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire).

Conclusion:

Madam C.J. Walker was a very impactful person in Black History, especially given how she push through at great pains to herself for the sake of herself and her daughter A’Lelia. Most importantly her rags to riches story is truly one to admire. As she overcame the challenges ahead of her while also looking out for those closest to her and her community.

“I am not ashamed of my humble beginning. Don’t think because you have to go down in the washtub that you are any less of a lady!” Madam C.J. Walker: Madam C.J. Walker Bio

This was my first Subscriber requested post. From a Subscriber that has been a founder level supporter and who had encouraged me to take my Substack publication seriously during the beginning. Thank you again Nicole.

For more on Madam C.J. Walker please check on the bibliography section below:

Bibliography: Madam C. J. Walker

Michals, Debra. “Madam C. J. Walker.” National Women’s History Museum. 2015. www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/madam-cj-walker. https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/madam-cj-walker

Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire

About Madam C. J. Walker

Sharecroppers

“Madam C. J. Walker Biography”. Biography.com. A&E Networks. November 12, 2021.

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Madam. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved June 19, 2026, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/madam

Glaeser, Edward (2011), Triumph of the City: How Our Best Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier, New York: Penguin Press, p. 75

Annie Malone and Madam C.J. Walker: Pioneers of the African American Beauty Industry

Bundles, A. (2026, May 21). Madam C.J.Walker. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/money/Madam-C-J-Walker

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2026, June 2). A’Lelia Walker. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/money/ALelia-Walker

Koehn, Nancy F.; Anne E. Dwojeski; William Grundy; Erica Helms; Katherine Miller (2007). Madam C. J. Walker: Entrepreneur, Leader, and Philanthropist. Vol. 9-807-145. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing. p. 12.

“First self-made millionairess”. Guinness World Records. May 25, 1919. Retrieved March 22, 2020.

Hutchinson, G. (2026, June 3). Harlem Renaissance. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Harlem-Renaissance-American-literature-and-art

“Madam C. J. Walker”. Indiana Historical Society.

Image: Madam C.J. Walker. Photo courtesy A’Lelia Bundles/Madam Walker Family Collection. Madam Walker, the First Black American Woman to Be a Self-Made Millionaire

Image: Madam C.J. Walker driving an automobile, 1911. © Smith Collection/Gado—Archive Photos/Getty Images Bundles, A. (2026, May 21). Madam C.J.Walker. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/money/Madam-C-J-Walker

Image: Madam CJ Walker Manufacturing Company, Indianapolis, Indiana. Indiana Historical Society. https://images.indianahistory.org/digital/collection/m0399/id/139

Image: Madame C.J. Walkers Wonderful Hair Grower. The Childrens Museum of Indianapolis. https://www.digitalindy.org/digital/collection/tcm/id/168

Madam C.J. Walker In Indianapolis Tour

Bundles, A’Lelia (February 24, 2015). “Madam C. J. Walker’s Secrets to Success”. Biography.com.

Vincent, Dubé-Senécal (2024). “Fashion’s diplomatic role: an instrument of French prestige-based commercial diplomacy, 1960s–1970s”. International Relations. 38 (4): 567–588. doi:10.1177/00471178221123506. hdl:10852/100599 – via Sage.

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Who was Aurelian?

In early September of 214/215 CE, Aurelian or Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, would be born. It’s not certain which Roman province he was directly from, other than that he was from the region of Illyria, making him one of the Illyrian emperors of the period(Anderson (2015)p.28/Pocock(2015) p. 49/Hurley(2011)).

He was considered to be the son of a Colonus(similar to a tenant farmer), who was probably a Roman veteran for the senator Aurelius. Who would later married the senator’s daughter, resulting in Aurelian getting his name. She was apparently a priestess of the Roman Sun god, Sol. Which would feature later in his life(Syvänne 2020, pp. 29–30/Hurley(2011)). This is as much that can be determined from the current available sources, due to issues of their reliability prior to his military service between the reigns of emperors Gallienus and Claudius II. As more reliable sources concerning Aurelian begin to appear(Saunders 1992, p.107, 129–130).

What can be determined is that for him to have risen to being a cavalry commander, he could have been at the time of his joining of legion of the status of the “Equestrian” or knightly class, which would also imply his father’s prior military service and social status(Saunders 1992, p.109/eques. Encyclopedia Britannica). However the class Aurelian’s skill as a military leader didn’t go unnoticed, and it will serve him well for his career and future.

Career in the Legion:

Aurelian’s military career can be viewed as one of great success. Especially during the reigns of Valerian, Gallienus and lastly Claudius II(Watson(2004)p.172/Hurley(2011)). Notably under Gallienus during the battle of Naissus against the Goths, and later under Claudius against the Goths, Vandals, and the Juthungi along the Danube River(Hurley(2011)/Watson 1999, p.41). It is during this time that he would meet his wife Ulpia Severina, (Kienast, Eck & Heil 2017, p.227/Vagi 1999, p.369/Watson 1999, p.114).

Between combating and defeating the Germanic peoples, Claudius II’s rival, Aureolus, securing victory at the Battle of Lake Benacus, and repelling the Goths and their allies in the Balkans. Aurelian had shown himself to be a capable leader and ally for Emperor Claudius II(Watson 1999, p.42-45/Hurley(2011)). However Claudius’s death in the summer of 270 CE, would change Aurelian’s place in history. As he would not only become emperor, but he would be the pivotal point that helps the Roman Empire overcome the crisis of the 3rd Century(Hurley(2011)/Watson 1999, p.46/Peachin 1990, p. 43–44).

The Crisis of the 3rd Century:

During Aurelian’s lifetime the Roman Empire was experiencing what scholars and historians commonly refer to as the crisis of the 3rd Century. This is a period of time after the assassination of Roman Emperor, Alexander Severus in 235 CE by his own soldiers lasting until 284 CE during the reign of Diocletian. Who managed to end the social turmoil plaguing the empire during this period(Mark(2026)).

During this period Rome experienced political, social, and economic turmoil. Economic due to high inflation from the currency being debased to balloon the pay of the military by the preceding Severan dynasty to keep them happy and loyal. Resulting in the military depleting the labor force for agriculture and other industries. Social and Political as the military meddled in civil affairs, plague affecting the population, invasion from the frontiers by tribal groups and the Sassanian Persians. Along with governmental instability due to Emperors’s deaths by natural causes, diseases(like plague) and especially assassinations. As one reaction towards the crisis was provinces in the west(Britannia, Gaul & Hispania) and those in the eastern Mediterranean(Egypt and Syria) breaking away into quasi-semi independent entities, commonly known as the Gallic and Palmyrene empires(Mark(2026)).

This was the situation Aurelian had grew up and spent most of his career in from Emperor Valerian being taken hostage by the Sassanians, his son Gallienus assassination after ruling for at least a decade(some argue that his successors including Aurelian were responsible). As Claudius II would die of plague after a few years, while his brother Quintillus was deposed in 270 CE in favor of Aurelian(Hurley(2011)/Aurelian. Encyclopedia Britannica/Watson 1999, p.42,46).

Now with the support his troops and the Roman senate, Aurelian was now emperor, but an emperor with a lot of work to do.

Restoring the World:

By early autumn of 270 CE, Aurelian was crowned(Aurelian. Encyclopedia Britannica). The ongoing Crisis of the 3rd Century had made it clear that his reign will be an eventful one. Amongst earliest course of actions were either pacifying or driving out groups such as the Vandals, Juthungi, and the Alemanni(Alamanni).To the point of acquiring the allegiances of several of their members as apart of their peace agreements(Hurley(2011)/ Aurelian. Encyclopedia Britannica).

With the northern frontier along the Danube river more secured, he would turned his attention to more immediate domestic issues from rooting out corruption and sedition at the imperial mint in Siscia(modern Croatia), and potential usurpers. Other reforms he would implement or attempt to would be addressing the debasement of silver coinage, debt cancellation, the distribution of food and the promotion of the sun god “Sol Invictus” as a unifying social institution(Hurley(2011)/Aurelian. Encyclopedia Britannica).

However two of his major policies he would become known for are the Aurelian Walls and Rome’s withdrawal from Dacia. The Aurelian Walls were Aurelian’s response after driving away an invasion the Alemanni, Juthungi, and Marcomanni had conducted deep into Italy itself(Aldrete(2004)p.41-42/Hurley(2011)/Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus. 35:7). After finally defeating them at Pavia and earning the title “Germanicus Maximus”, Aurelian would meet with the Roman Senate and have the Aurelian Walls built for the defense of the city of Rome(Watson 1999, pp. 51–54, 217/Hurley(2011)/Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus. 35:7).

The Aurelian Walls during this time was the largest construction project in Rome in decades(Aldrete(2004)p.41-42). It was originally constructed out of tufa concrete, with a facing of triangular bricks. It was around 12.5 miles (20 km) long and about 13 feet (4 m) thick. The walls would be completed by Aurelian’s successor, Probus. The walls originally stood 24 feet (7.2 m) high but were raised by Flavius Stilicho, the general of the emperor Honorius, to a height of 35 feet (10.6 m) and reinforced by 380 towers standing about 100 feet (30 m) apart. Initially there were 16 gates in the circuit. Much of the Walls still survived to the modern day with a long history of use since the Roman period(Aurelian Wall. Encyclopedia Britannica/Claridge, (1998)p.59, 332-335/Mark(2026)/Watson 1999, p. 51–54, 217).

The other major policy initiated was the withdrawal of Rome from Dacia, and making the more defensive Danube River the boundary of the empire. Reorganizing a new province of Dacia south of the Danube(Watson 1999,p.54–55).

Aurelian reconstitutes the Empire:

In 272 CE, Aurelian would set off to bring the breakaway state of Palmyra(eastern provinces from Asia Minor to Egypt)back under Roman control. Aurelian would win several key victories and captured Queen Zenobia and her young son Vaballathus after a grueling campaign(Hurley(2011)/Bowman, Garnsey, & Cameron(2005)p. 52/Ball(2002) p.81).

After defeating Zenobia, Aurelian would had back west to bring back the Gallic state under Roman rule(Hurley(2011)). By the beginning of 274 CE Aurelian was already marching on northern Gaul, confronting the leader of the Gallic state Tetricus at the Battle of Châlons in northeastern modern France(Southern(2015)p.175-176). The battle was intense but Aurelian’s forces secured victory leading to Tetricus surrender and the reincorporation of the Gallic state under Roman rule(Watson (2004)Aurelianp.93/Southern(2015)p.175-176).

To celebrate these victories Aurelian would have his triumph, a Roman military victory parade or celebration(Cartwright(2016)), presenting both Tetricus and Zenobia(Hurley(2011)).

These victories, along with other military and domestic successes resulted in Aurelian having the title “Restitutor Orbis”, in English “Restorer of the World(Watson 1999, p.174/Hurley(2011))”. As he had accomplished in his reign in under 5 years, what would be considered impossible. Bringing back Roman central authority and stability to the Roman state that had been dogged by decades of political, social, and economic turmoil. However this would not continue much longer.

The death of Aurelian:

In 275 CE, Aurelian began making plans against the Sassanian Persian Empire, quite possibly taking advantage of the aftermath of the death of Shapur I, two years prior(Hurley(2011)). In the process of crossing over from Thrace to Asia Minor, a plot had occurred unbeknownst to Aurelian. A plot due to a lie and paranoia. Because Aurelian was a strict administrator, especially when dealing punishment upon corrupt officials and soldiers. Resulting in his secretary supposedly out of fear over a minor mistake or clerical error, forging a fake document of high officials marked for execution and showing it to them. Out of fear the members of the Praetorian Guard listed assassinated Aurelian in early October 275(Watson 1999,p.104–105, 225/Peachin 1990, p.43–44/Aurelian. Encyclopedia Britannica).

Which is interesting when considering that Aurelian had documented history of granting mercy. As shown especially with Tetricus, Zenobia, and the city of Tyana, during his retaking of the eastern provinces(Hurley(2011)).

Regardless of the reason or the assassins’s motivations, Aurelian’s death will prolong the Crisis of the 3rd Century until the reign of Emperor Diocletian(284-305). Who would in turn capitalize upon the ground work laid by Aurelian. However that’s a story for another time(Hurley(2011)).

Thank you for reading about Emperor Aurelian. For more about this Roman emperor please check my bibliography section below.

Bibliography: Aurelian

Aurelian: British Museum

Britannica Editors (2026, January 1). Aurelian. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aurelian

Hurley, P. (2011, March 20). Aurelian. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Aurelian/

Britannica Editors (2025, December 18). Goth. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Goth

Britannica Editors (2019, November 8). eques. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/eques

Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century (PDF). The Classical World. Vol. 94. London: Routledge. p.41, 45-46, 51–54, 104–105,114,217, 225 doi:10.2307/4352566. JSTOR 4352566. S2CID 153920517. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2020.

Anderson, Zachary (2015). The Fall of Rome and the Rise of Constantinople. Cavendish Square. p.28.

Pocock, John Greville Agard (2015). Barbarism and Religion. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. p.49

Syvänne, Ilkka (2020). Aurelian and Probus: The Soldier Emperors Who Saved Rome. Yorkshire: Pen and Sword Military. p.29–30.

Watson, Alaric (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. New York, NY: Psychology Press. p. 172.

Watson, Alaric (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge. p. 93

Hengst, Daniël den (2010). Emperors and Historiography: Collected Essays on the Literature of the Roman Empire by Daniël Den Hengst. BRILL.p. 91, 119, 204, 206.

Kienast, Dietmar; Eck, Werner; Heil, Matthäus (2017) [1990]. Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie (in German) (6th ed.). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. p.227

Vagi, David L. (1999). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire: c. 82 B.C. – A.D. 480. Volume I: History. London: Routledge. p.369.

Peachin, Michael (1990). Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284. Amsterdam: Gieben. p.43-44

Mark, J. J. (2026, January 30). The Crisis of the Third Century: A Pivotal Era of Ancient Rome. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century/

Aldrete, Gregory S (2004). Daily Life In The Roman City: Rome, Pompeii, And Ostia, Greenwood Press, p.41-42.

Aurelius Victor, Epitome de caesaribus, 35:7 trans. Thomas M. Banchich (Buffalo, NY, and New York: Canisius College, 2018).

Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide, First, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1998, p.59, 332-335.

Britannica Editors (2016, June 10). Aurelian Wall. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aurelian-Wall

Alan Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. p. 52.

Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 81.

Southern, Pat (2015). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. London: Routledge. p. 175-176

Sowlos. (2014, September 12). Zenobia in Chains. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3014/zenobia-in-chains/

Walter, J. (2020, March 12). Aurelian Wall. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11987/aurelian-wall/

CNG, W. U. (2014, April 11). Coin Depicting Roman Emperor Aurelian. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2579/coin-depicting-roman-emperor-aurel

Silver antoninianus of Aurelian. Late Imperial(270–275 CE) Rogers Fund, 1908: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/248055

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What is the Conspiracy?

Today the Conspiracy I will be shedding light upon is one that has been a primary piece in White supremacists circles, though it was utilized from older sources. It has a long history but today our focus will primarily its use since the 20th century. This conspiracy theory is a false accusation of manipulation, lies, rooted in the often tag team of Antisemitism and Anti-Black Racism(especially). It has been at the roots of innocent lives being lost. When I note some of the examples, some of you will probably be surprised by the incidents’ actual motivations and in some cases the victims. This conspiracy theory is known as ZOG, or the Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy.

What is ZOG?

ZOG(also known as JOG, Jewish Occupational Government) is a conspiracy theory rooted in the belief(primarily in White supremacist circles), that “Jews”, “Zionist” or “Zionist Jews(be mindful that there are groups that use these words interchangeably, so they just mean Jews)” are secretly controlling or occupying the United States government(Hate Symbol ZOG/Nance(2022)p.140).

Adherents to this belief would also not only apply the claim that Jews secretly control the US government, but also governments in other countries, while many Neo-Nazis just use ZOG and its various forms just as racial slur. While some ascribe to the variation of Zionists using Israel to control the world for the Jews(Kaplan 2000a, p.367/Simonsen (2020)45 (5): 640–662/Daniels 1997, p.45)

The phrase that would become the acronym ZOG:“Zionist occupation government” popularized in the 1980s by the American neo-Nazi group, the Order. That through the major functions of the federal and state governments, from trash collector to the Department of Motor Vehicles, finance, the Internal Revenue Service(IRS) to Federal Law Enforcement are being run by “race traitors” from politicians to civil service employees as agents of the “Zionists”. By being paid off to help Jews control, exploit and oppress “White Christians(Nance(2022)p.140)”.

Within this quick overview we see two Antisemitic tropes or accusations being implied. The more straight forward one of these tropes is the one of “Jews and Money” a trope or stereotype that I had covered previously(The Canard of Money.). That essentially states Jews are either greedy, money hungry, great with money or financial savvy and that they control banks and other financial institutions(Krefetz,p.7, 47-8/Geisst,2003 p.66–68/Norword, 2008 p.181). While along with powerful and wealthy Jews controlling the business world. Judaism is claimed to emphasize only profit and materialism. With Jews being able cheat non-Jews and that Jews will use their wealth and power to benefit “their own kind”as well(Foxman,2010 p.84, 89, 93, 98, 102,105).

To be more straightforward this is the old medieval stereotype of the “Greedy Jewish Merchant” on steroids with a lot more power that doesn’t exist(Issitt & Main 2014, p.31–32)

Now that we have highlighted how the Jews and Money trope shapes one part of the ZOG conspiracy. We must look at another aspect of it that has been shaped by a heinous act of plagiaristic propaganda by a set of authoritarians wanting a scapegoat and those who would follow in their footsteps. This propaganda would be known as “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion”.

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in short is an antisemitic hoax, claiming to expose knowledge of Jewish plot for global domination(Jacobs & Weitzman (2003)p.17-20). That was plagiarized from the 1864 work of French political satirist, Maurice Joy, “The Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu” that was made to criticize the ambitions of then French Emperor, Napoleon III(Jacobs & Weitzman (2003)p.15/Bronner (2019)p.68–70). The other source for the Protocols creation lie in the work of antisemitic German novelist, Hermann Goedsche. From his 1868 novel, “Biarritz(Segel(1995)p.30)”. Which the chapter that implies a “secret Jewish plot” interestingly resembles a scene from the 1848 work of Alexandre Dumas “Giuseppe Balsamo” when Joseph Balsamo as Alessandro Cagliostro and his cohorts plot the Affair of the Diamond Necklace(Eco (1998)p.14).

It would be in early 20th century that during Tsarist Russia that the “Protocols” will take its current shape and by 1903 it had its first major publication by Pavel Krushevan, the primary architect behind the Kishinev pogrom which results in the deaths and injuries of Jews in modern Moldova(Michelis(2004)p.76–80/Penkower, (2004)24 (3):189).

This work would go on to influence others despite being proven to be an act of bigotry driven plagiarism as early as 1921(Graves 1921/Bein(1990)p.339). Influenced such people and groups such as Henry Ford who pushed it in his “Dearborn Independent” newspaper(Rosenbaum(2010)p.41). Especially groups like the Nazis of Germany(Segel(1995)p.30).

Now that we have covered two of the major ideas fueling ZOG, let’s move into the next aspects of it. Starting with “Race traitors”.

The Traitor claim:

The Race Traitor claim in ZOG is pretty straightforward, but it is one accusation of it that is deeply disturbing and has been fatal for a number of people. You see the adherents of this conspiracy theory(or the similar beliefs), have this view that because of powerful Jews using their “wealth” have turned a number of their fellow countrymen into traitors of some variety. In the case of White supremacist groups like “The Order” these traitors were White Americans who are pro-civil rights, particularly for Black Americans and other minorities. That they are in opposition to their activities. While White Americans who showed no adjacency for either view are called “sheeple” for example(Nance(2022)p.140-41/Simonsen (2020)45 (5): 640–662).

The other aspect of this is another conspiracy theory, known as the Great Replacement theory, the belief that there is an attempt to erase the White race by immigration and interracial relations by Renaud Camus(Duignan(2025). replacement theory. Encyclopedia Britannica/Nance(2022)p.128). Generally this conspiracy can be traced to trace to those who advocated against interracial marriages or unions(Parfit(2020)p.184-93). Who have killed people over such relationships. Such as the murders of Viola Liuzzo, James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, Michael Schwerner, William Lewis Moore and many others for civil rights(Nance(2022)p.141/CIVIL RIGHTS MARTYRS), while others such as the lynching of Patrick and Charlotte “Lottie” Morris and the more recent attack on Kelly Ann Jaeger and her boyfriend, Jeffery Wellmaker. Resulting in Jaeger’s death highlights the fear of replacement and subjugation through relationships(White Mob Lynches Couple in Louisiana Because of Their Interracial Marriage/Neo-Nazi gets life for killing woman in interracial couple).

Aside from the claims of secret control over the government and society, along with a paranoid fear of being replaced through the mixing of peoples. There is another element that also occurs in this conspiracy that surfaces alongside the Antisemitism. The Anti-Black Racism.

The fear of Jews using Blacks to Subjugate.

The Anti-Black Racism that permeates in the ZOG conspiracy is seen in multiple levels but the one that has a presence aside from intermingling and equality is the fear that Jews would use Blacks to aid in oppressing “White Christian Americans”. This is could be seen in the 1921 Ku Klan Klan work “The Searchlight” that alleges that Jews were using Blacks to undermine and destroy the government, this was a type of propaganda piece used by the Nazis and the Fascists(Parfit(2020)p.195-96). A more recent element of this is seen in the observations of extremists groups who consider the first Black American president, Barack Obama, to be an agent of ZOG(Nance(2022)p.99). Another aspect of this is an older one seen in Nazi Propaganda and Henry Ford’s attacks on Jazz as a corrupting influence upon the culture(Parfit(2020)p.200-5/“Antisemitism And Henry Ford’s “The International Jew”).

These sentiments concerning ZOG and related beliefs have led to fatal attacks on both Black and Jewish Americans. Often times the victims weren’t even aware of each other’s presence. Such examples include Keith Luke of Brockton, Massachusetts, who not only murdered two Black men but raped a third before being stopped before committing a massacre at a local synagogue. While James Wenneker von Brunn would murder Museum Special Police Officer Stephen Tyrone Johns during the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum shooting. Then there was Nathan Allen of the Winthrop, Massachusetts shooting, who was discovered to be a White Supremacist, that documented his racist and antisemitic views. He would steal a box truck, crashing it into a residential building. He would exit armed, ignoring the White bystanders, only to kill David Green(58) and Ramona Cooper(60), a Black man and woman, killing both just 2 miles down from a local synagogue(Nance(2022)p.135/“Stephen Tyrone Johns (1969–2009)”. In Memoriam/Nathan Allen, Boston-area hate crime shooter, left behind antisemitic rants).

Now I should make clear that not all forms of Antisemitism and Anti-Black Racism, are carried out by same type of perpetrator. Because these can be carried out by others who harbor such malice. What I am highlighting here is how it operates within the ideology or motivations centered around ZOG. As Black American Historian, Henry Louis Gates once said “Under the floorboards of Western culture run two streams, continuously. One is antisemitism, one is anti-Black racism(New PBS series hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr. examines Black and Jewish ties)”. Because with ZOG these two features heavily, even when fellow travelers of this belief are other minorities or those with opposing opinions(Nance(2022)p.128,132).

However this type of sentiment had appeared long before Obama’s presidency, as extremist militia groups angered by the civil rights movement and wanting to exploit the economic recession of the 1980s and the unrest of Y2K that never materialized(Nance(2022)p.97). Were reaching their peak until 1995 Oklahoma City Bombing by antigovernment White Supremacists Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols(Belew 2019, p.210). Which resulted in a massive US Federal response that drove these types of groups to the fringes(Nance(2022)p.97). As a chief a motivation behind the ZOG Conspiracy, the Order, McVeigh and others was the novel known as the Turner Dairies(McAlear 2009, p.192/Berger 2016, p.25–26).

In short the Turner Dairies is a 1978 novel by Neo-Nazi William Pierce. Set in dystopian future, that he characterizes as the Jews control the government, and Blacks and Hispanics ran rampant with crime. As Pierce’s hero Earl Turner, a member of the White resistance group called the Order(yeah that’s the name), becomes a martyr lead as the Order seeks out White liberals, Blacks and Jews to massacre(Nance(2022)p.58-59).

ZOG, this work, and its inspirations are present within several other countries. Because it has spread in various ways.

ZOG spreads:

The conspiracy theory of the ZOG or related ideologies had surfaced in several other countries. In Europe as early as the late 1980s we see the term used by European Neo-Nazi groups, especially in Scandinavia(Lee 1999, p. xxii/Kaplan 2000a, p.367). Most notable examples being Norwegian neo-Nazi musician and murderer Varg Vikernes, who claimed that Scandinavia and Germany were also under the control of ZOG(Kaplan 2000a, p.320). While the most infamous would be the massacre by the Norwegian extremist, Anders Behring Breivik. Whose terrorism was driven by his claim that liberals were allowing immigrants to taint the purity of Norwegian blood. Resulting in him mass murdering nearly 70 people, mostly children(Nance 2018,p.159-162).

Another European example is the Russian political party founded by Dimitry Rogozin in 2003, known as Rodina. Which advocated the position of banning Jewish organizations from operating in Russia, along with a campaign ad of swarthy or men with a darker skin tone eating watermelon and throwing the rinds at the ground in front of a White woman. The ad ends with “Let’s clear Moscow of Garbage(Nance 2018,p.82)!”

There are more but the pattern is essentially what we have seen so far repeating itself over and over. That covering such a disturbing ideology along with its more hideous parts would become repetitive and gut wrenching.

Conclusion:

In conclusion the ZOG(JOG:Jewish Occupational Government) or the Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy. Is an allegation rooted in lies, hatred, scapegoating and avoiding accountability. That this allegation was constructed due to the paranoid of a changing world but also being placed in the position of minority. Generating the fear that one might be treated harshly as said minority.

In reading this article I would like to ask the reader to carefully consider and examine every type of strife they encounter and ask not only about the nature of the situation but the information you are receiving. Because it’s good to ask questions, but you have to make sure that they are the right questions for what you are witnessing at a given point in time.

Thank you for reading, I know this topic maybe has been on the cringy side, but I felt that it needed to be brought up. As always for more information please check out the Bibliography down below.

Bibliography: Zionist Occupation Government conspiracy theory

Hate Symbol ZOG

The Canard of Money.

AJC Translate Hate Glossary

CIVIL RIGHTS MARTYRS

White Mob Lynches Couple in Louisiana Because of Their Interracial Marriage

Neo-Nazi gets life for killing woman in interracial couple

Nathan Allen, Boston-area hate crime shooter, left behind antisemitic rants

New PBS series hosted by Henry Louis Gates Jr. examines Black and Jewish ties

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Antisemitism And Henry Ford’s “The International Jew””Holocaust Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-and-henry-fords-international-jew

United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Stephen Tyrone Johns (1969–2009)”. In Memoriam: https://www.ushmm.org/information/press/in-memoriam/stephen-tyrone-johns-1969-2009?utm_campaign=HPstj?utm_source=website,HPstj&utm_medium=1,homepage&utm_source=1

Krefetz, Gerald, Jews and money: the myths and the reality, Ticknor & Fields, 1982 p.7, 47-8, 54-55

Geisst, Charles R. (2003). Wheels of Fortune: The History of Speculation from Scandal to Respectability. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 66–68.

Norword, Stephen Harlan (2008). Encyclopedia of American Jewish history, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 181.

Foxman, Abraham, Jews and Money: The Story of a Stereotype, Macmillan, 2010, p. 57-8, 84, 89, 93, 98, 102,105

Issitt, Micah; Main, Carlyn (2014). “Zionist Conspiracy Theories”. Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World’s Religious Beliefs. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p.29–32.

Jacobs, Steven Leonard; Weitzman, Mark (2003). Dismantling the Big Lie: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. p.17-20

Bronner, Stephen Eric (2019). A Rumor about the Jews: Conspiracy, Anti-Semitism, and the Protocols of Zion. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 68–70.

Segel, Binjamin (1995). A Lie and a Libel: The History of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Translated by Levy, Richard S. University of Nebraska Press. p. 30.

Eco, Umberto (1998), Serendipities: Language and Lunacy, New York: Columbia University Press, p.14

Penkower, Monty Noam (2004). “The Kishinev Pogrom of 1903: A Turning Point in Jewish History”. Modern Judaism. 24 (3): 189. doi:10.1093/mj/kjh017.

Graves, Philip (August 16–18, 1921). “The Truth about the Protocols: A Literary Forgery”. The Times. London. Archived from the original on August 9, 2003.

Bein, Alex (1990), The Jewish question: biography of a world problem, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, p.339

Kaplan, Jeffrey, ed. (2000a). “Zionist Occupation Government (ZOG)”. Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press. p. 320, 367

Simonsen, Kjetil Braut (October 19, 2020). “Antisemitism on the Norwegian Far-Right, 1967–2018”. Scandinavian Journal of History. 45 (5): 640–662. doi:10.1080/03468755.2020.1726809

Daniels, Jessie (1997). White Lies: Race, Class, Gender and Sexuality in White Supremacist Discourse. London: Routledge. p.45

Duignan, B. (2025, August 23). replacement theory. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/replacement-theory

Belew, Kathleen (2019). Bring the War Home: The White Power Movement and Paramilitary America. Harvard University Press. p.210.

McAlear, Rob (2009). “Hate, Narrative, and Propaganda in The Turner Diaries”. The Journal of American Culture. 32 (3): 192–202.

Berger, J.M. (2016). “The Turner Legacy: The Storied Origins and Enduring Impact of White Nationalism’s Deadly Bible”. International Centre for Counter-Terrorism. 7 (8). The Hague. doi:10.19165/2016.1.11. p.25–26.

Lee, Martin A. (1999). The Beast Reawakens: Fascism’s Resurgence from Hitler’s Spymasters to Today’s Neo-Nazi Groups and Right-Wing Extremists. Hoboken: Taylor & Francis. p. xxii.

Nance, Malcolm. They Want to Kill Americans: The Militias, Terrorists, and Deranged Ideology of the Trump Insurgency. St. Martin’s Press, 2022. p. 58-59, 97, 99, 128,132, 135, 140-41

Nance, M. W. (2018). The plot to destroy democracy: How Putin and his spies are undermining America and dismantling the West. Hachette Books. p. 82, 159-162

Parfitt, T. (2020). Hybrid hate: Conflations of antisemitism and anti-black racism from the Renaissance to the Third Reich. Oxford University Press. p.184-93, 195-96, 200-5

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The Baghdadi Jews:

While covering some of the previous Jewish Communities, particularly those of India, China, Iraq, and Iran. There was another community whose name would show up due to the nature of one of their primary professions, that being trade or commercialism(“The Baghdadi Jews of India”). This community is more commonly known as the Baghdadi Jews.

While their name would imply that they’re from Baghdad, Iraq, it generally refers to the region between the Tigris and Euphrates. Though it should be stated that while the majority of Baghdadi Jews are Iraqi in origin, many of them have origins in what is now Syria, Turkey, Yemen, Afghanistan, Iran, Egypt, and etc(Ghosh, 1992, p.19/“The Baghdadi Jews of India”). Blending together Sephardic, along with elements of other eastern Jewish traditions and more into their respective community(“The Baghdadi Jews of India”/Roland and Gubbay 2022/Karp, Sutcliffe, (2017) p.1036-38).

Though the community had grown out of Jews of similar but unique backgrounds from different locations, who were seeking to build better lives, they would settle primarily in South Asia, mainly in India particularly during 16th-18th centuries(Karp, Sutcliffe, (2017) p.1036-38). However the communities that would eventually become the Baghdadi community roots go back deeper still.

Origins:

The presence of Jews in India and South Asia had been documented for a very long time. As communities such as the Cochin and the Bene Israel have been attested to for centuries(Cochin Jews. Encyclopedia Britannica/Bene Israel. Encyclopedia Britannica). Just like them and the latter Paradesi and Pakistani communities(https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20150914-the-last-six-jews-of-cochin/Weil, 2008, (3: 1228–1230)), trade and social upheaval would be the primary causes behind the Baghdadi Jewish community forming.

For the roots of the Baghdadi Jews, 16th and 17th century records from the Mughal Empire are amongst the earliest known accounts of Jewish merchants from Baghdad coming to India for trade(Ilam (2004), p.267–276/Karp, Sutcliffe( 2017)p.1036-38). As there had been ancient trade routes connecting India to ancient Rome at Aleppo, as the spice trade had connected Basra, Yemen, and Cairo to the Malabar coast(Ghosh, 1992, p.19). Though it should be clear that Persian speaking Jewish traders had been involved with trade in India for longer than those from what is now Iraq and Syria(Karp, Sutcliffe( 2017)p.1036-38).

A number of Jewish merchants and travelers would be attested to in the Persian and Mughal records concerning the invasion of India by the Mughal Emperor, Babur(Karp, Sutcliffe( 2017)p.1036-38). These early interactions have led to records, accounts and legends of Jews in the Mughal court ranging from traders, courtiers, advisors and tutors. Such as being advisors for Akbar the Great(Fischel,(2018)18: 137–177). British travelers to the Mughal Empire would report of a Jewish presence due to the presence of synagogues but a significant community had not been formally established(Karp, Sutcliffe( 2017)p.1036-38). For what would become the Baghdadi community we now have to look at the roles of Shalom Cohen, Joseph Seemah, and Dawud Pasha.

The factors of the Baghdadi community formation:

The roots behind the Baghdadi Jewish community’s formation lie especially with the actions of three individuals. Shalom Cohen, Joseph Seemah and Dawud Pasha. Shalom Cohen is considered a key figure of the Baghdadi community, due to his involvement in the jewelry industry of Surat in northwestern India in the 1790s, prior to his move to Kolkata(Calcutta). As he would become associated of the community there(Ezra(1986) p.75/Fischel(1965)33: 1–20).

However Joseph Seemah would been a much earlier key figure in the founding of the Baghdadi community in northern India, as he would be involved in the establishing a synagogue and a cemetery in Surat during 1730 as the community grew from the trade from Aleppo, Baghdad, and Basra(“The Baghdadi Jews of India”/Ehrlich (2009)p.1205).

Though it would be the actions of the Ottoman governor of what is now Iraq, Dawud Pasha. Who during the early 19th century persecuted the Jews of his domain. Ultimately resulted in many of the Jews in Baghdad(&Iraq)to flee. With a number of Baghdad’s Jewish residents fleeing to India, some of whom would become famous(Khayyat, (1977) 129–141).

Though Dawud Pasha would be removed, later events will take place that would affect the Middle Eastern Jewish communities leading to notable migrations in the mid-19th century. Such events include the 1840 Damascus Affair, a blood libel against the Syrian Jewish community, the 1839 Mashhad Pogrom in modern Iran and the1831 plague in Baghdad, Iraq(Stansky (2018)p.5/Frankel(1996- 1997)p.0, 1, 60/Tsadik, 2007, p.35). These events would result in more Jews settling amongst the existing Jewish communities in India, the Baghdadi community being one of them.

Life in India during the Colonial era:

During India’s colonial period, from as early as 1858-1961(Wolpert(2026). British raj). The condition of the Baghdadi communities was one of affluence, thanks in part to the number of wealthy Jewish families with ties to British trade. As British power became dominant in India, the nature of commerce shifted. As it would shift from Surat to Kolkata and Mumbai(Bombay). The resulting shift would cause the Baghdadi Jewish community to shift towards the two cities as well(“The Baghdadi Jews of India”).

The types of trade and commerce involving Baghdadi Jewish merchant families consisted of banking, cotton, jutte, tobacco, dried fruits, metals, tea, silk, spices, gum and especially opium(Goldstein 1999, p.145/Jackson 1989, p.48,51/“The Baghdadi Jews of India”). The wealthy Sassoon family would eventually control the majority of the opium trade from India(Jones 2007, p.41/Thampi 2017, p.40).

It is by the Sassoon family that the Baghdadi community in India and across South Asia would gain prosperity. The key figure behind this trend would be David Sassoon. David Sassoon, the former treasurer of Baghdad under the Ottomans, would become a key figure in the Baghdadi Jewish community in Mumbai(Bombay) after he and his family had fled Ottoman Iraq due to persecution(Jackson(1968)p.5–12/Green(2024)p.13–19.

David Sassoon through his philanthropy and success as a merchant, he would greatly benefit the Baghdadi community across South Asia. Through his business investments, managing trade, particularly by starting his own trading company, David Sassoon & Co(David Sassoon & Sons). A company that would operate in India, China and Japan during the 19th and early 20th centuries(Kaufman(2020)p.31–32/Jackson(1968)p.17-19). David Sassoon would become a leading figure in the community based in Mumbai during the 1860s, as he would be instrumental in the building of the Magen David Synagogue, while in Pune, he would have constructed a school, a Mechanics’ Institute, a library and the Ohel David Synagogue(Green(2024)p.13-19/Inamda(10 December 2024)/Gopinath (7 March 2020)).

He would also use his wealth to expand opportunities for Jewish migrants from Iraq, Syria, Iran, and Afghanistan, through education and employing them in his businesses. While ensuring that they are supported throughout their lives(Kaufman(2020)p.35-36).

David Sassoon would not be alone in aiding in the growth of the Baghdadi community’s presence across southern Asia, where Azariah Samuel(who would settle near the Bay of Bengal) and brothers Judah and Abraham Raphael Ezekiel, who would settle in Mandalay working form the Burmese(Myanmar) royal court. They too would be followed by other Baghdadi Jews into the region seeking economic fortune(Cernea(2007),p.5).

Across the British holdings in South and Southeast Asia, and Australia, and in China and Japan, multiple communities of Baghdadi Jews of various sizes would spring up from the mid-1800s until the aftermath of World War II. Thanks in part to family, communal ties, and trading firms at various ports throughout the region(Dana (2010)p.63-66/Kupfer(2018) p.156/Friedfeld,Metoudi(2015)”Baghdadi Jews”).

However the Baghdadi Jews were in a interesting position, socially, during this period. This was most noticeable in British held territories, the existing Hindu caste system in India, a social hierarchy system influenced by the religion of Hinduism (Basham(2026) Hinduism. Encyclopedia Britannica). Alongside the British expanding it into a deeper from of segregation and social hierarchy during colonial rule(Bayly (2001), p.392).

These socioeconomic conditions resulted in many of the Baghdadi community trying to distance themselves from their Bene Israel and other Indian Jewish compatriots in order to be seen as European both socially and politically. This even became more of a stark contrast amongst those with greater wealth. With the wealthy became more culturally westernized, while poorer Baghdadis continued to wear more traditional or middle eastern clothing for example(“The Baghdadi Jews of India”).

Noted examples of this pro-British stance would be in schools founded by David Sassoon, the song “God Save The Queen”, in Hebrew as both English and Arabic were also taught, despite David himself never speaking English(Stansky (2018)p.7). Prior to World War I many of the Judeo-Arabic(more later)publications in India had closed, while English began to take place in religious life, such as more communications with the Chief Sephardic Rabbi of Great Britain, while preserving Iraqi Jewish customs concerning circumcision, betrothal, and protections of newborns(“The Baghdadi Jews of India”). As prior to this the Baghdadi community didn’t have their own ordained rabbis, thus the initial reliance on those in Iraq(Yisrael(1995)p.42).

This more western integration was highly influenced or driven by the decline of the importance of Baghdad and the dominance of Great Britain(the British Empire) in economics and trade during the 20th century(Yisrael(1995)p.42-43/Snir(2015) p.59-61).

However despite this blending with heavier western influences, the Baghdadi Jews were still limited to being outside of colonial European high society(Yisrael(1995)p.42-43). Which efforts in trying to integrate themselves triggered rifts with their fellow Jews in India especially the Bene Israel(Yisrael(1995)p.43).

Their efforts overall yielded mixed success, as a number of Baghdadi Jews became involved and/or appointed to several administrative positions within British controlled India(British Raj). Such as David Sassoon being appointed as Justice of the Peace in Mumbai, his son Albert, the Mumbai(Bombay) Legislative Council, while Sir Victor Sassoon would serve as a member of the Indian Assembly, while Sir Sassoon J. David and Meyer Nissim served as mayor of Mumbai. While in Kolkata(Calcutta), a number of Baghdadi Jews served as honorary magistrates, sheriffs, and municipal councilors(Yisrael(1995)p.42-43/“The Baghdadi Jews of India”).

While a number of the prominent members of the community were involved and invited to functions and events for the British Viceroy, there were still times when members of the Baghdadi community were denied access to European voter rolls in India(Yisrael(1995)p.42/ Singh (2014).“the Baghdadi community”).

During World War I, the Baghdadi Jewish merchants were among some of the chief suppliers of jute sandbags and construction materials for the trenches of the notorious Western Front of the war(Vinita(2007)p.44-45). However they would not be far removed from the next great conflict of the 20th century, as the major power on their side of the world would bring the conflict closer to them.

World War II & Indian Independence:

South and Southeast Asia experienced the ravages of a World War, when the third major power of the Axis alliance, Imperial Japan(the other two being Nazi Germany & Fascist Italy)invaded. Seeking to seize the colonial territories held by the European powers preoccupied in Europe and Africa, while fighting Japan’s German and Italian allies(Szczepanski(2025)/Hughes, Royde-Smith(2026)World War II. Encyclopedia Britannica).

The communities in Burma(Myanmar), Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Indonesia came under Japanese occupation, as India became a place for refugees fleeing from not only the Imperial Japanese army, but also from the 1941 Farhud pogrom in Iraq, along with fellow Baghdadi and Jews fleeing Europe to India. Resulting in communities to swell in population,such as Kolkata’s going well over 5,000(Marks(2013)/Ehrlich(2018)p.1173-74, 1188,1238,1241,1249). Though those in the communities in occupied territories faced hardships, Japan never adopted a policy of antisemitism towards Jews like their Axis allies, but instead treated in reference to their country of origin or nation similar to it(Hanyok(2004)p. 99–104).

In the aftermath of the Allies victory in World War II, the Baghdadi community(along with many other Jewish communities) in southern and eastern Asia faced a new challenge. The reshuffling of the political dynamics of the regions they had called home.

The social upheaval during the Indian partition into what would become the nations of India, Pakistan, and later Bangladesh(Kulik(2026)Encyclopedia Britannica/“The Sum of His Many Parts”). The independence of Myanmar(Burma), and the economic challenges that ensued, and the communist victory in China. Resulting in communities either shrinking or leaving entirely for the newly established Israel, Australia, Europe or the United States by the late 20th century(Cernea(2018)p.124-25/“The Baghdadi Jews of India”)

Though in this new period after the British empire there would be leaders and star figures who would take center stage. For example David Marshall being the first Chief Minster of Singapore in 1955(David Saul Marshall. Encyclopedia Britannica), as Lieutenant General J. F. R. Jacob, a Baghdadi Jew from Calcutta, won national fame while as Major General and chief of staff of the Indian army when defeating the Pakistan Army in East Pakistan in the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971. Which help resulted in the independence of Bangladesh. He would later served as the governor of the Indian states of Goa and Punjab(“The Sum of His Many Parts”.(June 2012)/https://forward.com/news/331162/remembering-jfr-jacob-india-jewish-general/).

In the modern day the Baghdadi community has mostly folded back into the Iraqi Jewish community, but there are a few exceptions as some members in Israel have continued to maintain ties to India, with members still scattered throughout the world’s industrialized nations(“The Baghdadi Jews of India”).

The Culture of the Baghdadi Jews:

The Baghdadi community who at one point was believed to have numbered at least 50,000(Cuinet(1894)p.66), played an interesting role in world history through commerce, diplomacy, politics, and art. Let us go over a few of these aspects of their cultural and historical legacy, starting with their style of cuisine.

Baghdadi Jewish cuisine consists of influences of the various cultures and regions that many of members had originated from. Resulting in influences of Arab, Turkish, Persian, and Indian traditions within their cuisine(Cooper, 2009. p.100–9).

The dishes within Baghdadi cooking consists of kubbeh, ground chicken dumplings coated with semolina and cooked in a spicy soup or curry. Along with hamim (a slow-cooked Shabbat dish of chicken stuffed with spiced rice, topped with whole eggs) served with coriander chutney, chicken biryani and matzah meal-coated potato chops. Which are potato dumplings stuffed with chicken and coriander that are coated then fried(This Indian Jewish Cuisine Has a Fascinating History). Another dish that also uses chicken, is Chitarnee, which uses chicken, vindaloo paste, madras curry powder and other spices(The Chicken Recipe That Tells the Story of the Baghdadi Jews of India). These are just a sample of the unique cuisine of the Baghdadi Jews. For now let’s move onto another key part of their cultural heritage, their language.

Prior to languages such as English and Hindi becoming very important for many Baghdadi Jews. Thanks in part to their professions involving them being the bridge between other groups, whether as merchants, diplomats, entertainers, journalists or politicians(Cernea(2007),p.5/Yisrael(1995)p.42-43/“The Baghdadi Jews of India”/Kaufman(2020)p.35-36). A key language that was a central feature of Baghdadi Jewish culture was Judeo-Arabic.

Judeo-Arabic, also known as Arabiya Yahūdiya (ערביה יהודיה عربية يهودية), illuḡa dyalna ‘our language’, il‘arabiyya dyalna ‘our Arabic’. In Hebrew it is called Aravit Yehudit(עַרַבִית יְהוּדִית). Is an ethnolect, meaning that it is a linguistic entity with its own history and used by a distinct language community. With Judeo-Arabic, it is various Arabic dialects mixed with Hebrew and Aramaic used by very Jewish communities across the Arab speaking world(Shohat (2017)153–200/Hary, Mendel. n.d. Judeo-Arabic,2026).

In the case of Baghdadi Jews, like with other the various Jewish communities in Arab speaking areas, they too spoke a unique form of Judeo-Arabic, it being called Judeo-Baghdadi or Judeo-Iraqi Arabic(Hary, Mendel. n.d. Judeo-Arabic,2026). Some of the unique features of it consist of the higher presence of Aramaic loanwords within it, due to Aramaic’s longstanding use amongst the Jews living within Baghdad itself. Resulting this form of Judeo-Arabic becoming very distinct from the versions spoken by related communities(Hary, Mendel. n.d. Judeo-Arabic,2026).

Examples consist of deʕabad for ‘after the fact’, sitra ʔaḥra or ‘the other side’ in referring to the devil, ʕina biša or ‘the evil eye’, damax for ‘sleep’, and gandar or kandar for ‘rolled’. While aside from the Aramaic influences, there are other variations such as for the phrase ‘I said’ it’s typically ‘gilit’ but in Judeo-Baghdadi it is ‘qəltu’. Other differences from its Iraqi Arabic counterpart includes for the word ‘What’, šenu, while in Judeo-Baghdadi(Judeo-Iraqi Arabic) it is aškun. For ‘bad’ instead of müzen, it is düni and lastly for ‘husband’ instead of rajel it’s zõj(Hary, Mendel. n.d. Judeo-Arabic,2026).

For a great example of Judeo-Baghdadi, check out the 2013 film “Farewell Baghdad” also known as “The Dove Flyer” by Nissim Dayan, based on the novel by Eli Amir which was produced in mostly in Judeo-Baghdadi(The Dove Flyer/Film Screening: The Dove Flyer (Farewell Baghdad)). In terms of literature for the Baghdadi community, as mentioned earlier, there were Judeo-Arabic publications in South Asia, mainly in India, that consisted of newspapers, periodicals, historical and religious texts(Snir(2015)p.58-61/Yisrael(1995)p.42).

In terms of religious practices and customs, Baghdadi Jews, due to their ties to Iraq, mainly follow the traditions of their Iraqi counterparts. So much so that they(like the Bene Israel & Cochin Jews) didn’t have ordained(or trained) rabbis and had just initially relied upon the hakhams(sages) to help address questions centered around religious and cultural matters. However after World War I the community would appeal more to the Chief Sephardic Rabbi of Great Britain(“The Baghdadi Jews of India”/Yisrael(1995)p.42).

In relation to the Zionism(or Jewish self determination movement) during the late 19th to early 20th century this appeared to have been a class divide between the neutral wealthy Baghdadis and the more supportive middle class Baghdadis in Mumbai and Kolkata(Yisrael(1995)p.42).

Though a number of the wealthy members of the community would set themselves to being key sponsors of Jewish life and culture in the Middle East. That the merchants in India would support schools, synagogues, yeshivas and charities across Iraq and Syria(Yehuda (2017) p.124). When it comes to synagogues a number of synagogues were built or supported by a number of prominent Baghdadi Jews. These include synagogues such as the Magen David Synagogue in Byculla, Mumbai. Founded by David Sassoon and completed in 1864, Magen David is an still active Sephardic tradition synagogue constructed in an European style unlike those of the Bene Israel and the Cochin Jews(Magen David Synagogue — an oasis of peace in one of Mumbai’s busiest localities/Inside the synagogues of Mumbai).

Another important synagogue is the Knesset Eliyahoo Synagogue also in Mumbai. Also known as the Blue Synagogue due to its color it was established and constructed in 1884 at the behest of Jacob Elias Sassoon and his brothers in memory of their father Elias David Sassoon (Elias is also known as Eliyahoo), the son of David Sassoon. Interestingly enough it was originally white with bright indigo boarders, however it’s relates to the blue exterior walls it once had(Inside the synagogues of Mumbai). Sadly the synagogue would be affected by the first ever terrorist attack on Jews in India, during the 2008 Mumbai attacks. As visiting Rabbi Gavriel Holtzberg, his wife, Rivka and over 170 others were killed, while at least 300 injured(Bhandarwar, 2012/Mumbai Terror Attacks ).

India is not the only place where synagogues tied to the Baghdadi community exist. As there are multiple active and historic synagogues throughout South Asia and areas tied to the community. Examples include Shanghai’s “Ohel Rachel Synagogue(Cantor pushes China to open historic synagogue)”, Singapore’s “Chesed-El Synagogue(National monuments of Singapore: Chesed-El Synagogue)” and Yangon, Myanmar’s “Musmeah Yeshua Synagogue(Leader of Myanmar’s Jewish community dies)” are just a few that represent the Baghdadi Jews’ place in history of South Asia.

Another industry that Baghdadi Jews had a presence in was the Indian film industry. Early in the industry’s development there were Baghdadi Jewish actors who had become stars. Such as Sulochana (Ruby Meyers) (1907–1983), Ramola, Pramila (Esther Victoria Abraham), Rose, and Nadira (Florence Ezekiel, 1932–2006).

Pramila or Esther(image below) would become the first Miss India, a feat her daughter, Naqi Jahan, would also accomplish in 1967. As they currently are the only mother and daughter to have hold the title. Prior to winning her crown Esther had also started her own film production company, Silver Films in 1942(Roland and Gubbay. 2022).

Also entertainment industry wasn’t the only industry Baghdadi Jewish women broke into. From the accomplished dancer,Reem Sisodia(image below), to Regina Guha and Rachel Ashkenazy opening the way for women in law, as Rachel Duek Cohen and Tabitha Solomon would do likewise for the fields of medicine and dentistry. As many other Baghdadi women would do the same in pursuing unique careers(Roland and Gubbay. 2022).

Relations with the Cochin & Bene Israel:

The relationship between the Cochin Jews and Bene Israel(two communities I have covered previously see in the bibliography), with the Baghdadi Jews is an interesting history. Aspects the relationship between these groups range from initially being supportive to later being strained due to not only language and cultural differences, but how the India’s caste system was intensified during British colonial rule and the wealthy class amongst the Baghdadi needs to assimilate into European high society(Yisrael(1995)p.42-43,Snir(2015) p.59-61, Bayly (2001), p.392).

The stain was even more pronounced with the Bene Israel, as members of the Baghdadi community during the period under British rule, questioned the Bene Israel’s Jewishness. Resulting in little intermarriage, along with not including the Bene Israel in forming a minyan (prayer quorum) nor calling them up to read the Torah in the synagogue(“The Baghdadi Jews of India”). As further attempts at assimilation by the upper class, such as prioritizing English beyond business and government into social life, as many wouldn’t take the opportunity to learn the languages of the Cochin and Bene Israel. The Judeo-Marathi(Jewish Marathi)of the Bene Israel(Kohn, Jacob. n.d. Jewish Marathi), the Judeo-Malayalam of the Cochin(Zacharia, Scaria. n.d. Jewish Malayalam), and other the other languages of South Asia(“The Baghdadi Jews of India”). Efforts in pushing away the Bene Israel met push back by the community. One famous example were the efforts by Bene Israel historian, Haeem Samuel Kehimkar, in pushing back against attempts of questioning Bene Israel’s heritage(Egorova (2018)p. 36–40).

Though as mentioned earlier that despite their efforts at assimilating into European colonial society, many of the Baghdadi Jews had still encountered difficulties, including some of the wealthy(Yisrael(1995)p.42/ Singh (2014).“the Baghdadi community”).

However their relationships with their fellow Indian based Jews had improved significantly amongst those that were still in India after the mid-20 century(“The Baghdadi Jews of India”).

Conclusion:

In the end the Baghdadi Jews were a community that sprung out of necessity resulting from their situations in the Middle East. Primarily being persecution and seeking out better economic opportunities(Ilam (2004),p.267–276/Karp, Sutcliffe(2017)p.1036-38/Khayyat,(1977) 129–141/Stansky (2018)p.5).

Many of the community applied themselves and their abilities in various ways in aiding their fellow Jews, though at times being distant from a number of their fellow compatriots( ). Due to the trying to benefit from a socio-economic system that would leave them in question positions in relation to those around them during the colonial period( ). Resulting in a number of them being pioneers in medicine(Roland and Gubbay. 2022), national heroes(Jack Jacob, Indian Jewish war hero, dies at 92), business men(Kaufman(2020)p.31–32/Jackson(1968)p.17-19) and so on. Though some made their fortune in Opium, a substance that had become very problematic during the 19th century(Pletcher (2026)Opium Wars. Encyclopedia Britannica).

Ultimate I hope that this summary of the Baghdadi Jewish community was enlightening and helpful in understanding the complex nature of Jewish Ethnic Diversity and how vast across the world that such diversity and stories extend. Because next on this topic we will be finishing our tour of South Asia in Afghanistan.

For more information concerning today’s topic please visit the Bibliography section below.

Bibliography: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdadi_Jews “Baghdadi Jews”

“Uncovering a story of ill-fated romance and tragic death”. BBC. June 2017.

https://www.timesofisrael.com/topic/baghdadi-jews/

Roland, Joan G. and Tamar Marge Gubbay. “Baghdadi Jewish Women in India.” Shalvi/Hyman Encyclopedia of Jewish Women. 16 May 2022. Jewish Women’s Archive. (Viewed on March 2, 2026) <https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/baghdadi-jewish-women-in-india>.

https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/community/articles/last-days-kolkata-baghdadi-jews “The Last Days of Kolkata’s Baghdadi Jews. A multicultural memorial service for Flower Silliman, the oldest member of the Indian city’s centuries-old Jewish community, illustrates the cordial relations between residents of different faiths. Nonetheless, the future doesn’t look so bright.”

“The Baghdadi Jews of India”

This Indian Jewish Cuisine Has a Fascinating History

In Antique Land, Amitav Ghosh, Granta Books, 1992, p.19.

Karp, Jonathan; Sutcliffe, Adam (30 November 2017). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 7, The Early Modern World, 1500–1815. Cambridge University Press. p. 1036-38

“Jewish Merchants in the Mughal Empire”, Ishrat Ilam, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress Vol. 65 (2004), p. 267–276

Fischel, Walter J. (21 July 2018). “Jews and Judaism at the Court of the Moghul Emperors in Medieval India”. Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research. 18: 137–177.

Gamliel, Ophira (2018). “Back from Shingly: Revisiting the Premodern History of Jews in Kerala” (PDF). The Indian Economic and Social History Review. 55: 53–76)

Britannica Editors (2014, December 16). Cochin Jews. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cochin-Jews

https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-cochin-jews-of-kerala/ “The Cochin Jews Of Kerala: A small Jewish community in India.”

Britannica Editors (2018, December 13). Bene Israel. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bene-Israel

https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-bene-israel/ “India’s Bene Israel Jews: The oldest and largest of the three Jewish communities in India.”

Weil, Shalva. ‘The Jews of Pakistan’, in M.Avrum Erlich (ed.) Encyclopaedia of the Jewish Diaspora, Santa Barbara, USA: ABC CLIO. 2008, (3: 1228–1230).

https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20150914-the-last-six-jews-of-cochin “The last six Paradesi Jews of Cochin”

Fischel, Walter J. (21 July 2018). “Jews and Judaism at the Court of the Moghul Emperors in Medieval India”. Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research. 18: 137–177.

Ezra, Esmond David (1986). Turning Back the Pages: A chronicle of Calcutta Jewry. Brookside Press. p. 75.

Fischel, Walter (1965). “The immigration of” Arabian” Jews to India in the eighteenth century”. Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research. 33: 1–20.

M. Avrum Ehrlich (2009). Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. p.1205

Khayyat, Shimon (1977). “A Description of the Ascent of ‘Alī Riz̤ā Pāshā in a Judaeo-Iraqi Folk Song”. The Jewish Quarterly Review. 67 (2/3). University of Pennsylvania Press: 129–141.

Stansky, Peter; Stansky, Professor Peter (21 July 2018). Sassoon: The Worlds of Philip and Sybil. Yale University Press. p.5, 7

Frankel, Jonathan (April 1996). The Damascus Affair: ‘Ritual Murder’, Politics, and the Jews in 1840. Jerusalem: Cambridge University Press(published January 13, 1997)p.0, 1, 60

Between Foreigners and Shiis, Daniel Tsadik, page 35, Stanford University Press, 2007.

Wolpert, S.A. (2026, May 22). British raj. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/British-raj

Jonathan Goldstein (Editor): “The Jews of China”, Volume One, M.E. Sharpe Publisher, Armonk/ London 1999, p.145,

Stanley Jackson: ″The Sassoons - Portrait of a Dynasty″, Second Edition, William Heinemann Ltd., London 1989, p.48, 51,

Geoffrey Jones: ″Merchants to Multinationals - British Trading Companies in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries″, Oxford University PressOxford 2007, p.41,

Madhavi Thampi: “India and China in the Colonial World”, Social Science Press, London/ New York 2017, p.40

Jackson, Stanley (1968). The Sassoons. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. p.5–12

Green, Robert L. (2024). A Jewish Heart: The Struggle for Status and Identity in Asia. Lanham: Lexington Books. p.13–19.

Philpot, Robert (26 November 2022). “The rise and fall of the opium-fueled Sassoon dynasty, the ‘Rothschilds of the East’”. The Times of Israel.

Kaufman, Jonathan (2020). The Last Kings Of Shanghai: The Rival Jewish Dynasties That Helped Create Modern China. New York: Penguin Random House. p.31–32, 35-36

Inamdar, Nadeem (10 December 2024). “Ohel David Synagogue and David Sassoon Tomb join Maharashtra’s Jewish Heritage Tourism Circuit”. Hindustan Times.

Gopinath, P. Krishna (7 March 2020). “Mumbai’s last minyans”. The Hindu.

Cernea, Ruth Fredman (2007). Almost Englishmen: Baghdadi Jews in British Burma. Lexington Books. p. 5

Cernea, Ruth Fredman (21 July 2018). Almost Englishmen: Baghdadi Jews in British Burma. Lexington Books p.124-25

Dana, Léo-Paul (2010-01-01). Entrepreneurship and Religion. Edward Elgar Publishing. p.63-66

Kupfer, Peter (21 July 2018). Youtai – Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China. Peter Lang. p.156

Friedfeld, L.; Metoudi, Philippe (31 July 2015). Israel and China: From Silk Road to Innovation Highway. Partridge Publishing. “Baghdadi Jews”

Singh, Ms Priya; Chatterjee, Ms Suchandana; Sengupta, Ms Anita (15 January 2014). Beyond Strategies: Cultural Dynamics in Asian Connections: Cultural Dynamics in Asian Connections. KW Publishers Pvt Ltd. “the Baghdadi community”

Dikshit, K., Allchin, F.R., Wolpert, S.A., Alam, M., Subrahmanyam, S., Raikar, S.P., Schwartzberg, J.E., Champakalakshmi, R., Thapar, R., Spear, T.P., Calkins, P.B., Srivastava, A. (2026, June 3). India. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/India

Basham, A.L., Narayanan, V., Gold, A.G., Dimock, E.C., Buitenen, J.V., Doniger, W., Smith, B.K. (2026, June 3). Hinduism. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism

Bayly, Susan (2001), Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age, Cambridge University Press p.392

Yisrael, Muzeon (21 July 1995). The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities. UPNE. p.42-43

Vinita,(2007), Icons of Indian Industry. Sura Books. p.44-45

Szczepanski, Kallie. (2025, April 23). World War II in Asia. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/world-war-ii-in-asia-195787

Hughes, T.A., Royde-Smith, J.G. (2026, June 2). World War II. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II

Marks, Zach (2013-10-24). “The Last Jews of Kolkata”. New York Times.

Ehrlich, M. Avrum (21 July 2018). Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p.1173-74, 1188,1238,1241,1249

Hanyok, Robert J (2004). Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945 (PDF). p. 99–104.

Britannica Editors (2026, March 8). David Saul Marshall. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Saul-Marshall

https://forward.com/news/331162/remembering-jfr-jacob-india-jewish-general/ “Remembering JFR Jacob, India’s Jewish General”

“The Sum of His Many Parts”. OPEN Magazine. June 2012.

Jack Jacob, Indian Jewish war hero, dies at 92

AMOS LIM: The anglicization of Baghdadi Jews in Singapore, 1832–1950. Journal of Jewish Studies 76, 125-151(2025). DOI:10.3828/jjs.2025.76.1.125

https://aish.com/5-fascinating-facts-about-jews-in-india/ “5 Fascinating Facts about Jews in India”

Cuinet, Vital (1894). La Turquie d’Asie (in French). Vol. 3. Paris. p. 66.

Cooper, Judy and John Cooper. “The Life-Cycle of Baghdadi Jews of India”, in India’s Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, (ed) Shalva Weil, Mumbai: Marg Publications [first published in 2002; 3rd edn.], 2009. pp. 100–109.

The Chicken Recipe That Tells the Story of the Baghdadi Jews of India

Kulik, R.M. (2026, May 27). partition of India. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Partition-of-India

Shohat, Ella (2017-02-17). “The Invention of Judeo-Arabic”. Interventions. 19 (2): 153–200. doi:10.1080/1369801X.2016.1218785

Hary, Benjamin and Josh Mendel. n.d. Judeo-Arabic. Jewish Language Website, Sarah Bunin Benor (ed.). Los Angeles: Jewish Language Project. https://www.jewishlanguages.org/judeo-arabic. Attribution: Creative Commons Share-Alike 4.0 International.

Baghdadi Judeo-Arabic

The Dove Flyer

Film Screening: The Dove Flyer (Farewell Baghdad)

Snir, Reuven (26 February 2015). Who Needs Arab-Jewish Identity?: Interpellation, Exclusion, and Inessential Solidarities. BRILL. p.58-61

Yehuda, Zvi (28 August 2017). The New Babylonian Diaspora: The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Community in Iraq, 16th-20th Centuries C.E.BRILL. p.124

Magen David Synagogue, Byculla, Mumbai

Magen David Synagogue (Byculla)

Jewish Women’s Archive. “Magen David synagogue in Mumbai, India..” (Viewed on June 10, 2026) <https://jwa.org/media/magen-david-synagogue-mumbai-india>.

Magen David Synagogue — an oasis of peace in one of Mumbai’s busiest localities

Inside the synagogues of Mumbai

Bhandarwar, Ajay H. MS, FMAS, FIAGES, FICS, FAIS; Bakhshi, Girish D. MBBS, MS, DNB, MRCS Ed, FMAS, FIAGES, FICS, FAIS; Tayade, Mukund B. MS, FMAS, FIAGES, FAIS; Chavan, Gajanan S. MBBS, MD; Shenoy, Sachin S. MBBS; Nair, Ashish S. MBBS. Mortality pattern of the 26/11 Mumbai terror attacks. The Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery 72(5):p 1329-1334, May 2012. | DOI: 10.1097/TA.0b013e31824da04f

Mumbai Terror Attacks

Knesset Eliyahoo Synagogue

Talking With a Terrorist: An Endless Call to India

Cantor pushes China to open historic synagogue

Ohel Rachel Synagogue

National monuments of Singapore: Chesed-El Synagogue

Chesed-El Synagogue

Leader of Myanmar’s Jewish community dies

Musmeah Yeshua Synagogue

The Rise and Fall of a Global Empire

The Magen David Synagogue

Kohn, Jacob. n.d. Jewish Marathi. Jewish Language Website, Sarah Bunin Benor (ed.). Los Angeles: Jewish Language Project. https://www.jewishlanguages.org/jewish-marathi. Attribution: Creative Commons Share-Alike 4.0 International.

Zacharia, Scaria. n.d. Jewish Malayalam. Jewish Language Website, Sarah Bunin Benor (ed.). Los Angeles: Jewish Language Project. https://www.jewishlanguages.org/jewish-malayalam. Attribution: Creative Commons Share-Alike 4.0 International

Jewish Ethnic Diversity Part 19: Jewish India: The Cochin Jews

Jewish Ethnic Diversity Part 20: Jewish India, Bene Israel.

Yulia Egorova (5 September 2018). Jews and Muslims in South Asia: Reflections on Difference, Religion, and Race. Oxford University Press. pp. 36–40.

Pletcher, K. (2026, May 4). Opium Wars. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Opium-Wars

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As we saw previously Egypt had fragmented along the lines of the nomes, its provinces. As the most effective leaders of each region were the ones who had the greatest influence and support. Resulting in multiple dynasties operating along side each other across Egypt itself(Mark, J. J. (2016)). Until it was only the kings based out of Henen-nesut in Fayum. Known commonly by its Greek name, Herakleopolis(Fletcher, 2016, p. 115). Who were facing off against their rivals from Thebes or Waset(Fletcher, 2016, p. 117).

It would be the Theban Kings who will be the ones who reunite Egypt under the central authority of one Pharaoh. Under the dynasty that would known as Egypt’s 11th Dynasty. Before we get to the pharaoh who will begin a new era of Ancient Egypt. We must first look at his predecessors and how Thebes began the journey that this new pharaoh had completed.

Thebes under Intef the Elder & Mentuhotep I:

By around 2150 BCE, a nomarch was governing Thebes, and unbeknownst to him, his descendants will rise not only their home to great cultural significance throughout Egypt but also his very name. This nomarch was Intef the Elder, sometimes called the Great(Baker 2008, p.141-142). He is considered to be the key progenitor or ancestor of the 11th Dynasty that rises up from Thebes(Grimal, 1992, p.143).

Which is interesting because Thebes until this point had not been a major city or place in Egyptian society throughout its already long history. Thebes had been inhabited since the Old Kingdom(if not prior) but was generally a small provincial capital for trading and administration(Jestice, 2023, p.65/Dorman(2025, May 2)Thebes).

However its circumstances began to change noticeably during the First Intermediate Period(c.2181-2055/40 BCE), as Thebes will begin to take a new course starting under Intef the Elder.

Not much is currently available about Intef the Elder during his time as Nomarch of Thebes, besides that his governorship most likely started at the end of the 8th dynasty and that he was in service to the early Herakleopolitan kings. Which governing from Thebes to Aswan, and from Thebes north to Koptos/Qift(Baker 2008, p.141-142/Grimal, 1992, p.143).

However what is interesting about Intef the Elder, is his presence in Egyptian culture after his death. As he would be venerated not only by the later pharaohs of the 11th dynasty, but by those of later dynasties. Whether by a statue dedicated in his honor by 12th dynasty pharaoh, Senusret I or 18th dynasty pharaoh, Thutmose III, dedicating a royal chapel at the Karnak temple complex(another famous site tied to Thebes) with Intef being listed amongst the royal ancestors with the titles equal to“prince” and “count(Baker 2008, p.141-142).”

Lastly Intef the Elder was even worshipped in private shrines, with one example being seen in the stele of a later 11th dynasty official, Maati. Were he ask for prayers to “Intef the Elder, the son of Iku(Baker 2008, p.141-142/“Stela of the Gatekeeper Maati”. Metropolitan Museum of Art).

Though not much more is known about Intef the Elder, from the time he lived or those of his contemporaries. It is fairly certain that he played a significant part in the rise of Thebes during the First Intermediate Period. To the considerable degree of later Egyptians(pharaohs especially), are demonstrating some sort of connection to Intef the Elder.

After Intef the Elder had died , his successor(quite possibly his son or another relative), Mentuhotep I took his place as Nomarch of Thebes. Mentuhotep I like Intef, does not have a lot of written records concerning his presence or time as Nomrach over Thebes. Actually there is on going debate over if he actually existed or if he was posthumously being honored by his royal descendants of the Theban dynasty that rose after him(Hayes 1971, p. 476/Grimal, 1992, p.143).

As Mentuhotep I’s name appears to have been listed in the Karnak Temple’s kings list honored amongst the “Ancestors” with the honorific “Tepy-aa(Grimal, 1992, p.143/Ryholt, 2006, p.30). He was also venerated like his predecessor Intef the Elder, by 12th dynasty pharaoh, Senusret I(Grimal, 1992, p.143).

However Mentuhotep I’s wife, Neferu I, also had a significant presence. As she too would be held in high esteem by her children and grandchildren. As her great-granddaughter a later queen would be named after her, while her youngest known son, Intef II, will be announced at the time of his death as the “Son of Ra, Intef, born of Nefru, who lives like Ra forever, went in peace to his horizon. And his son has taken his place(Fletcher, 2016, p. 118).”

Mentuhotep I, would pass on and be posthumously known as king(Jestice, 2023, p.65), however his son and successor, Intef I, would be more bold during his reign. He would claim not only the title the “Great Overlord of Upper Egypt” but also the Horus name of the “pacifier of the Two Lands”. Firmly stating that he is the Pharaoh of all of Egypt(Jestice, 2023, p.65/Fletcher, 2016, p. 117)

Intef I:

Sehertawy Intef I or Intef I, would become the new Nomarch of Thebes, however his ambitions do not lie with his governorship of Thebes. Besides the claiming of the titles of the “Great Overlord of Upper Egypt” and the Horus name of the “pacifier of the Two Lands” or Sehertawy(Jestice, 2023, p.65/Fletcher, 2016, p.117/Baker 2008, 143-44/Grimal, 1992, p.143). Intef I will make a political move or statement that also symbolizes his break with the Herakleopolitan monarchy.

The moment occurred during a meeting being held with his fellow nomrachs at the Herakleopolitan royal court. Possibly due to the military exploits of another powerful nomarch, Ankhtifi. However Intef I did not attend the meeting himself, he sent a representative of high status to this meeting before the Herakleopolitan court. Intef I sent the commanding officer of his army in his place for this meeting. This combination with his title of “Great Overlord of Upper Egypt” showed that Intef I was no longer some lowly vassal or a peer to his fellow nomarchs. That he was a monarch equal, if not superior to those of Herakleopolis(Wilkinson,2013 p.111).

Intef I actions hadn’t gone unnoticed by his fellow nomarchs. As he would begin to gain defectors from other nomarchs out of respect for him. One of the earliest examples of these defectors was the province of Iunet or Dendera(Wilkinson,2013 p.111/Fletcher, 2016, p.117). Meanwhile those loyal to the Herakleopolitan government, prepared for war, as the loyalist nomarchs of Koptos(Gebtu/Qift), Asyut, Nekhen/Hierakonpolis and others would aligned themselves against Intef I and his Theban forces(Wilkinson,2013 p.111-13/Fletcher, 2016, p.117-19).

The first to fall was Koptos or Gebtu, as the strategic province that lied between Thebes and Iunet(Dendera). When it became apart of Intef I‘s domain, he had gained access to all the overland routes linking the eastern and western deserts. So secure in establishing his authority, he would have his tomb constructed on the western bank of the Nile looking over Thebes, a location considered to be sacred to not only his predecessor, Mentuhotep I, but the Egyptian goddess Hathor(Fletcher, 2016, p.117/Wilkinson,2013 p.111-13).

As we continue moving forward with the ascendancy of the Theban monarchy, we’ll notice that the armed forces of the factions involved in this civil war for control of Egypt, especially inside Upper Egypt, that there will be a heavy presence of Nubian combatants being deployed by many of the rival factions.

Just during Intef I’s take over of Koptos, Nubians of the Medjay and Wawat(Lower Nubia) featured prominently as prisoners of war despite that other Nubians were apart of the Theban military. However there was a key difference in how the rival factions deployed their Nubian troops. The Nubian troops under the Theban banner were actually a central element of their offensive military operations. Not mercenaries and/or positioned as auxiliaries(Wilkinson,2013 p.112). We will continue see a lot more of this type of military integration by the time of Mentuhotep II. For now let move on to Intef II.

Intef II:

At what is now known as Saff el-Dawaba, at the site of El-Tariff, on the western bank of the Nile River, lies the Saff Tomb of Intef I(Baker 2008, 143-44/Fletcher, 2016, p.117). He would be succeeded by his younger brother(some refer to him as his son), who would be known as Intef II(Fletcher, 2016, p.117/Wilkinson,2013 p.114).

Intef II(Wahankh Intef II) would succeed his elder brother, as the King of Thebes, the chief power broker of Upper Egypt. Who will quickly capitalized upon his brother’s success, with his leadership and the loyalty of his followers. He would consolidate his power and expand Theban power across the rest of Upper Egypt bringing him into conflict with the other powerful Nomrachs of Upper Egypt (Wilkinson,2013 p.114). Especially Ankhtifi of Nekhen.

When it came to Ankhtifi, Intef II, was not unfamiliar with him. Because Intef I, had already engaged him in battle during his time as leader(Grimal, 1992, p.143/Wilkinson, 2013,p.109). Even dealing with territorial exchanges with their adversary. As Ankhtifi had seized the allied province of Edfu, and even threatened Thebes itself with a potential siege(Grimal, 1992, p.142-43/Wilkinson, 2013,p.109). However within a few years after Ankhtifi’s death, Intef II would have Edfu, Nehken(Ankhtifi’s home) and Elephantine under his control(Grimal, 1992, p.142-3/Wilkinson, 2013, p.109).

By the end of his 50 year reign(2112-2063 BCE), Intef II, had secured Theban control from Abydos to Lower Nubia, reimposing Egyptian authority over this region after at least a century of absence(Shaw, p.125/Wilkinson, 2013, p.115). There would be one incident during Intef II’s reign that would be seen as a blemish on all powers involved.

The incident in question occurred during the battle of Abydos around Thinis, during the battle between Intef II and the King Khety, most likely Wahkare Khety, the royal tombs of Egypt’s First Dynasty were sacked and desecrated. Including many of the royal mummies, including the mummy of Namer(Menes), the first Pharaoh of a united Egypt. The horror of the destruction of this royal cemetery infuriated numbers of people including their respective kings(Wilkinson, 2013, p.116-7/Fletcher, 2016, p.118). For the Herakleopolitan King Khety(likely Wahkare Khety) it was a dishonor, a disgrace he couldn’t bear. That it motivated his writing for his son, the later Pharaoh Merikare, the literary work called “Teaching for King Merykara” for the purpose of teaching him how to govern in other to avoid such mistakes(Fletcher, 2016, p.115/Hayes(2008)p.237).

However for Intef II, this incident had justified his position that the Herakleopolitan kings no longer had any claims to legitimacy. As he chastised the Herakleopolitan King, while displaying his own piety and leadership. From taking care of the poor in his domain to constructing a shine at Karnak within Thebes that was dedicated to the Sun god Ra, and the local god(one who would become very important in later Egyptian history), Amun or Amen(Wilkinson, 2013, p.117/Fletcher, 2016, p.118).

Around 2063 BCE Intef II,“the “Son of Ra, Intef, born of Nefru, who lives like Ra forever, went in peace to his horizon. And his son has taken his place(Fletcher, 2016, p. 118).” As his daughter the priestess of the goddess Hathor, Iah(Ioh) funerary song was performed and inscribed in her father’s tomb, at the family’s burial site across from Thebes overlooking the Nile at the home of Hathor(Fletcher, 2016, p. 118/Wilkinson, 2013, p.117-8). As both Hathor and Ra are honored in Intef II’s death, his son Intef III would reign shortly in his place.

Intef III:

Intef III would only reign about 8-10 years(c.2063-2055 BCE) after the long reign of his father. He would rule with his sister wife Iah(Ioh). During his short reign Upper Egypt’s position was further strengthened as the on and off famine and environmental conditions that have been a problem throughout the First Intermediate Period had stabilized(Wilkinson, 2013, p.118/ Fletcher, 2016, p. 115/Megadrought & Collapse(2025)). Meanwhile an uneasy truce had been existing between Lower and Upper Egypt. As the Theban Kings had firm control of southern Egypt, while their Herakleopolitan rivals held middle and northern Egypt. Though Upper Egypt was economically prosperous, this stalemate was not fated to last(Fletcher, 2016, p.118-9/Wilkinson, 2013, p.118).

After reaffirming his control over Abydos, Intef III would march north taking Asyut(Baker 2008, p.147-148/Fletcher, 2016, p.118-9). While possibly conducting renovations or religious activities at the sanctuary of Heqaib/Hekayeb, the temple of the goddess Satet at Elephantine and the temple of Montu at Tod(Gardiner, 1961, p.120/Baker 2008, p.147-148).

After his short reign Intef III would be buried in his tomb along the west bank of the Nile, across from Thebes in the growing necropolis consisting of his family(Arnold (2003)p.206/Baker 2008, p.147-148/W. Grajetzki 2006 p.15-17). It was at this point his son, Mentuhotep II, would accomplish the reunification of Egypt under one ruling Pharaonic dynasty.

But before I close with Mentuhotep’s success, there are two topics I would like to quickly go over. The first is royal marriages and second another set of Egyptian gods that were very important, especially during this period.

Royal marriages in the Family:

The every day lives of ordinary Ancient Egyptians(and people of other ancient societies) are deeper and more complex than we typically expect. Since the culture and society of Ancient Egypt evolved over time, I am only going to touch on one aspect of Egypt society that becomes more apparent as we advance forward in time after the First Intermediate Period.

Royal marriages in Ancient Egypt society play a significant role in how the Egyptian monarchy operates and centralizes power or share it(Jestice, 2023, p.21). However there was a noticeable change that becomes more apparent during the First Intermediate period and going forward. The earliest known occurrence of this practice was in the 4th Dynasty, but it was more common place after the First Intermediate Period. The practice I speak of was the royal marriages between siblings both half and full((Jestice, 2023, p.21).

The primary reasons why we see these types of marriages were due to these two primary reasons. One was the concentration of power within the Pharaoh’s family and second was the perceived divine status of the pharaohs and those that shared their lineage(Jestice, 2023, p.21/Mark, J. J. (2016)Love).

This was not always the case, as some marriages were arranged between the reigning Pharaoh(or royal family) and powerful members of the Egyptian nobility. Such early known examples consists of 4th Dynasty Pharaohs such as Sneferu having married his half-sister Hetepheres, the daughter of Huni and his queen(Fletcher, 2016, p.64-65). While his grandson Khafre, would marry his niece, Meresankh III(Fletcher, 2016, p.78-79).

However there are exceptions of such marriages between royals and individuals who were much further apart. Though it is suspected that 6th Dynasty Pharaoh Teti, was a commoner who married into royalty(Fletcher, 2016, p.99/Wilkinson, 2013, p. 90), his son Pepi I, would indeed marry a commoner due to an attempt on his life from the royal harem, resulting in his in-laws being high ranking officials, including prime minister(Fletcher, 2016, p.102-103/Wilkinson, 2013, p.91).

The intentions of using royal marriages as political alliances were a feature that occurred(& will continue). One example of this is the 8th Dynasty Pharaoh Neferkauhor, having married his daughter, Princess Nebet, off to the powerful southern official, Shemai of Koptos(Fletcher, 2016, p.112).

However when we get to the end of the First Intermediate Period, we see sibling royal marriages becoming more frequent. Which could be a result of the worship of the brother-sister couple, the gods Osiris and Isis being an influence upon the Pharaoh and their family members as they’re already seen as connected to the divine, especially in the case of the Pharaohs themselves(Bixler (1982) 264–281/Hopkins(1980) 303–354).

I wanted to shortly expound upon this feature in ancient Egyptian society that we will continue to see amongst the royalty going forward. At a separate time I will focus on other related topics such as everyday Egyptian couples, livelihoods, religious practices and etc.

Speaking of religious practices I now want to briefly discuss two important gods that were featured in today’s reading. The goddess Hathor and the god Montu.

Hathor & Montu:

In short the Egyptian goddess, Hathor, was a very important and powerful goddess in Ancient Egyptian religion. As she was worshipped as a mother goddess, a goddess of the sky, women, love, and fertility(Hathor. Encyclopedia Britannica). She was also associated with the Nile’s annual flooding, music, cattle and the afterlife(Mark,(2009)Hathor).

Current available material about Hathor up until the end of the First Intermediate Period generally follows that she was a female goddess, whose primary attributes were associations with cows or cattle, that seemed to suggest that worship or explicit veneration of Hathor goes as far back as early as the Old Kingdom during the 4th Dynasty, but there is evidence suggesting that this could have been as early as the Early Dynastic period(Wilkinson 1999, p.244–245/Gillam 1995, p. 214.). However Predynastic artwork, such as the Gerzeh Palette, indicates that an entity associated with cows or cattle was being represented at least prior to 3100 BCE(Lesko 1999, p.15–17/Hassan 1992, p.15).

In short though Hathor rose to prominence during the 4th Dynasty, evidence points to her being far older or that her beginnings lie deeper in Egypt’s past(Lesko 1999, p.81–83).

What is also fascinating about Hathor is due to her motherly and sky goddess aspects, she has ties to the sun and sky gods Ra and Horus. Such as being on Ra’s sky barge as he goes into the underworld at night and her name meaning “Domain” or “Temple of Horus”(Mark,(2009)Hathor/Billing 2004, p.39).

This dynamic could be from when Horus was the primary sky, sun, and kingship deity prior to Ra’s supremacy during the 4th and 5th Dynasties(Fletcher 2016. p.77/ Wilkinson 2013 p.74,78-79), as Hathor would serve as the place Horus would return to(Wilkinson 2003, p.140). As Ra’s worship and ties to the monarchy became increasingly prominent we see Hathor being tied to Ra in similar ways, such as his barge. Her connection to the sun is even more pronounced with her titles “Golden One” and “her rays illuminate the whole earth” from the texts from her temple in Upper Egypt at Dendera(Wilkinson 2003, p.140/Richter 2016, p.128, 184–185).

One last interesting fact about Hathor is that depending upon the time period and the sociopolitical conditions of Egypt during said period. Hathor is often times Horus wife or consort, sometimes Ra’s wife(consort), but more often(especially as we move into the Middle Kingdom period) his daughter. However interestingly in some iterations Hathor is also depicted as the mother of Horus, which attests to their relationship being older than that of Horus’s relationship with the gods Osiris and Isis. The two gods that are generally seen as his parents from at least the late Old Kingdom period. Though both Horus and Hathor are often paired together as a couple(Hart 2005, p.62/Lesko 1999,p.82–83/Mark,(2009)Hathor).

What is interesting about Hathor being paired with a number of male gods, is that due to her being one of the goddess associated with kingship, we often see her in iconography nursing a Pharaoh, and being paired with the male deity that was the focus of worship at a particular point in Egypt’s history. Especially by a ruling family. Examples being Hathor being paired with Horus, Ra, or gods later in Egyptian history such as Khonsu and Amun(Wilkinson 2003, p.155/Cruz-Uribe 1994, p.185, 187–188/Quirke 2001, p.102–105/Mark,(2009)Hathor/Hathor. Encyclopedia Britannica).

Another reason why this dynamic is interesting is because Hathor was also paired with another important god of the time period we’re covering. The god Montu(Darnell 1995, p.54, 62, 91–94).

Montu:

Montu(or Mentu) was the falcon-god of war in ancient Egyptian religion. Especially in Thebes and throughout Upper Egypt(Montu. Encyclopedia Britannica). He was considered the embodiment of the pharaoh’s conquering spirit(Hart 1986, p.126). Though interestingly his name is tied to the ancient Egyptian word for “Nomad(Ruiz (2001) p.115)”.

Montu was an ancient god in Upper Egypt, who was considered to be a representation of scorching effect or the burning wrath of Ra, hence his epithet or name Montu-Ra. Along with being a widely revered war god, the ancient Egyptians held the belief that Montu would attack the enemies of Maat, while also inspiring glorious warlike actions(Pinch 2004. p.165). Along with Ra, Montu was linked to Horus, as shown by his epithet “Horus of the Strong Arm(Wilkinson 2003, p.203-4).”

A man with falcon’s head with a sun disk was not the only way the Egyptians depicted Montu. As he would have bull imagery tied to him showcasing his strength(Rachet (1994)p. 208). Because of Montu’s ties to Thebes, and the military success of the early members of the 11th Dynasty, Montu would become the supreme god in Egypt for a period of time(Callender 2000, p.148-183/Hart 1986, p.126/Rachet (1994)p. 208).

Montu, resulting from this shift under the 11th Dynasty pharaohs, later Egyptian armies would have the insignia of the “Four Montu” or symbols representing the key centers of Montu’s worship(Pinch 2004. p.165). For example for what could be among the eldest of these centers, at the site of El-Tod(southwest of modern day Luxor), the existing Temple of Montu was enlarged by 5th Dynasty pharaoh, Userkaf(Grimal, 1992, p.76), while the pharaoh Niuserra(Nyuserre)might have been responsible for the beginnings of the Temple of Montu known as Medamud near the site of Karnak(Fletcher, 2016, p.89/Bunson (2002)p.229). Each site’s materials shows that Montu had long been apart of the culture of Upper Egypt. While the variation of Montu, Montu-Ra would be incorporated into the funeral complex of the pharaoh whose actions will make Montu the head god of Egypt for a short period of time(Grimal, 1992, p.173/Rachet (1994)p. 208/Callender 2000, p. 148-183).

(Check here below for more images of Montu at the Louvre museum in France: https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010008992

https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010009295 )

That pharaoh in question would be Mentuhotep II, who’s name means “the war god Montu is content(Fletcher, 2016, p.119)”

Mentuhotep II ends the First Intermediate Period:

Around 2060 BCE, Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II or “The Lord of the rudder is Ra(Son of Ra)” and “Montu is Satisfied” will begin his reign(Fletcher, 2016, p.119/Grimal, 1992, p.155/https://egyptianmuseumcairo.eg/artefacts/statue-of-mentuhotep/). For our convenience Mentuhotep II will work just fine, but note the Ra and Montu connection that could also be representative of Montu-Ra(Pinch 2004. p.165).

Mentuhotep would succeed his father, Intef III, becoming the sixth ruler of the 11th dynasty, with his sister, Nefru II as one of his queens(Fletcher, 2016, p.119). During the time he was establishing his rule, the House of Khety, the Herakleopoltian monarchy of Lower Egypt had begun to fall into unrest, as Asyut(Sauty) and neighboring provinces opposition became more rebellious(Wilkinson 2013 p.118-9). The Herakleopoltian kings conquered the region during the 14th year of Mentuhotep’s reign, but a major incident occurred, one akin to disgraceful act that was previously recorded. Known as the crime of Thinis in later Egyptian records, because once again the tombs at Abydos were desecrated and looted(Morenz (1992)p.128/ Hayes(2008)p.466–67). An event that had helped inspire the writing of the “Teaching for King Merykara” had occurred again (Fletcher, 2016, p.115/Hayes(2008)p.237).

However this time Mentuhotep II will be the one to respond, as he will lead his Theban forces north taking the provinces of the House of Khety before reaching the city of Herakleopolis itself and capturing it. Living up to his namesake of “the war god Montu is content” as he would channeled Montu into his conquests(Fletcher, 2016, p.119/Wilkinson 2013 p.118). Mentuhotep would ultimately bring Lower Egypt, the Western Desert, and Wawat(Lower Nubia), under his command, but at great cost. The most obvious being shown in the burials of soldiers, mostly men between the ages 30-40, who were buried near what would become Mentuhotep’s mortuary temple(Fletcher, 2016, p.119/Wilkinson 2013 p.119-121).

Though they died in a horrific battle, they were honored at their burials by being wrapped in royal linen, marked by royal seals, and Mentuhotep II’s cartouche(Jestice, 2023, p.67/Fletcher, 2016, p.119). Indicating that the new pharaoh of a reunited Egypt, held these soldiers in high esteem. There were three other acts that Mentuhotep took that signified that he was the new undisputed Pharaoh of Egypt. These aren’t listed in any specific order but they are significant in him essentially starting what would become a new era in Egypt.

In a shine dedicated to Mentuhotep II at Inerty deep within Thebes, there was a relief made depicting Mentuhotep’s victory in a rather explicit way. They show kneeling captives being ready for execution. What is most interesting is how each of the captives are identified. They all can be identified as northern Egyptians, Nubians, Libyans, and Asiatics, people the Egyptians seen as coming from western Asia(Wilkinson 2013 p.121/Fletcher, 2016, p.121). This relief was made to show that Mentuhotep was the one in Egypt with the power and authority.

Until he accomplished becoming the sole Pharaoh of Egypt, Mentuhotep II would adopt a number of Horus names before and after the reunification(Jestice, 2023, p.67). A Horus (or serekh) name was one of the earliest symbols of the kings, that eventually became used to show that their rule was tied to Horus, one of the earliest Egyptian god tied to kingship(Mark(2016)Horus/Bestock, 2009, p.6-10). However it is not always tied to Horus, as for example 2nd Dynasty Pharaoh Peribsen used Horus’s rival Set for his(Robins (2000), p. 6), while the 2nd Dynasty Pharaoh Khasekhemy had combined both Horus and Set for his Horus name(Bard (2000) p.86).

These titles and naming conventions served political purposes. In the case of Mentuhotep they signify his intentions of being the king of all of Egypt. Such as his use of Sankhibtawy meaning “the one who brings life to the heart of the Two Lands(Wilkinson 2013 p.118)”. While near the end of the war he adopted Netjerihedjet, “divine of the white crown” which was the traditional crown(hedjet) of Upper Egypt(Wilkinson 2013 p.120/crowns of Egypt. Encyclopedia Britannica).

However the most significant title Mentuhotep would adopt would impact how the Pharaohs are perceived after his time. Prior to Mentuhotep II, deification of a still living reigning king wasn’t the norm, but with the title “the living god, foremost of kings(Wilkinson 2013 p.121)”, along with other acts of attaching himself to the Egyptian gods, Hathor and Ra(Fletcher, 2016, p.119). This form of self-deification will become a new norm going forward(Wilkinson 2013 p.121).

For now Mentuhotep II has ended the First Intermediate Period(Mark, J. J. (2016)), for Egypt and its neighbors. He has triggered the beginning of a new golden age for Egypt, during the Middle Bronze Age. Mentuhotep II begins the next chapter of Ancient Egyptian history, the Middle Kingdom. Which is where we will return to continue our journey, as we will see how Mentuhotep II and the 11th Dynasty take Egypt and its neighbors into a new era.

Thank you for traveling through the First Intermediate Period with me, as it has been a fascinating and insightful journey. As always for more information on today’s topic please check out my Bibliography page.

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Image Media Title Montu Media Type Image Website Name Encyclopædia Britannica Publisher Encyclopædia Britannica, URL https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mont-Egyptian-god#/media/1/390354/306779

https://anthropologyreview.org/history/ancient-egypt/egyptian-war-god-montu/. “The Wrath of Montu – The Mythology of the Egyptian War God”

https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG54510 “Montu”

https://api.repository.cam.ac.uk/server/api/core/bitstreams/fd60fc78-05be-4029-812b-62dc10540dee/content “The Good God in the Form of Montu”: Pharaoh as the Warrior God on the Battlefield”

https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010009295 “Montu, bull form”

https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010008992 “Montu, falcon form”

Ruiz, Ana (2001). The Spirit of Ancient Egypt. Algora Publishing. p. 115

Hart, George, A Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, Routledge, 1986, p. 126.

Pinch, Geraldine. Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2004. p. 165.

Rachet, Guy (1994). Dizionario della civiltà egizia. Rome: Gremese Editore.p. 208.

Gae Callender: The Middle Kingdom Renaissance, In: Ian Shaw (ed): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000, p. 148-183.

Morenz, Siegfried (1992). Egyptian Religion. Egypt: Cornell University Press. p. 128.

Mark, J. J. (2016, March 16). Horus. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Horus/

Laurel Bestock: The Development of Royal Funerary Cult at Abydos: Two Funerary Enclosures from the Reign of Aha (= Menes: Studien zur Kultur und Sprache der ägyptischen Frühzeit und des Alten Reiches, vol.6). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2009, p. 6-10.

Bard, Kathryn A. (2000). “The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c. 3200–2686 {{sc}BC}})”. In Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 86.

Gay Robins, The Art of Ancient Egypt (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), p. 33.

As usual audio & visuals for those on the go:

Lastly I want to offer a special thank you to William Warren, as you have been a great help in putting this series together.

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However this potential change in fortune was too late for Egypt’s 8th Dynasty, as Memphis is no more the center of power. Because the seat of power now belongs to a new dynasty based out of Henen-nesut in Fayum. Which we today know by its Greek name, Herakleopolis(Heracleopolis), the city of Herakles(Heracles). Egypt’s new 9th Dynasty, would be known as the Herakleopolitan Kings, because of their association with the warfare of this period, tied to its founder Khety I(Fletcher, 2016, p. 115).

Who was Pharaoh Khety I?

There are a lot of interesting factors concerning Khety I. Later historians, such as 3rd Century BCE author, Manetho, referred to him as a brutal tyrant, and who was “more terrible than his predecessors(Fletcher, 2016, p. 115/Jestice, 2023, p.62)” While the Herakleopolitan dynasty he was central to had primarily ruled within the immediate vicinity of Herakleopolis(modern day Ihnasya el-Medina), while anything south of Abydos was a loose overlordship(Jestice, 2023, p.62, Wilkinson (2013) p.107).

However there is a question to be asked about Pharaoh Khety I, who was he exactly?Because Khety I, could have been one of two individuals each pharaohs themselves. Meryibre Khety and Wahkare Khety.

You see we run into a similar situation with these two that was like with some of the previous pharaohs. The materials that identify them are few. While Meryibre Khety is known from materials such as a copper brazier(basket), scribe’s palette, ivory casket fragments, and an ebony wand(Hayes(2008)p. 464), Wahkare Khety is known from cartouches found on a 12th dynasty coffin and the king’s list commonly known as the Turin canon(Gardiner 1961, p. 112/Schneider 2002, p.172).

However our situation doesn’t end here, as there is not a solid consensus amongst scholars on which dynasty the pharaohs belonged to. As Meryibre Khety is generally a 9th Dynasty pharaoh(Grimal, 1992, p.140/Hayes(2008)p. 464), while Wahkare Khety is associated with the 10th Dynasty. A rival dynasty that appears not long after the 9th had begun, but also within the same location(Grimal, 1992, p.144–47/Hayes(2008)p. 996/Bunson 2009, p. 202/Jürgen von Beckerath 1999, p. 74).

What seems to be the central underlying issue with the pharoahs of these dynasties is the use of the title “House of Khety”, being applied to both(Demidchik, A. (2016) 97–120), along with both pharaohs having highly militaristic reigns. Evident by not only Manetho’s statement of Khety I’s rule(Fletcher, 2016, p. 115/Jestice, 2023, p.62), but also the Egyptian literary work, “Teaching for King Merykara(Merikare)” that was written by an author who is alleged to be Wahkare Khety himself. Who is leaving instructions for his son and successor Merikare(Fletcher, 2016, p.115/Hayes(2008)p. 237). Within the text there is an account by the author of his efforts in expelling people from the Levant(traditionally called Asiatics in Egyptian sources) by Wahkare(Fletcher, 2016, p.115/Hayes(2008)p. 237).

Thus the text would place Wahkare Khety in the 10th dynasty instead. I thought it would be interesting to examine this topic because it could be quite possible that both dynasties were of the same family, and that the 10th was a splinter group that broke away after an internal dispute of some sort.

So do to the nature of available materials for both dynasties, I think before we engage with the reign of Merikare, we should explore the 9th and 10th dynasty period from the eyes of the nomarchs(provincial governors) Khety I, his son, Tefibi, grandson Khety II, and Ankhtifi.

The world of the Nomarchs:

During the time of the Ancient Egyptian kingdom, administrative divisions, that we would recognizes as provinces(or states in the United States) existed. They would be referred to as Nomes, and the chief official of each nome would be known as a Nomarch(Britannica. “nome”/Britannica. “nomarch”).

I would like to further add that nome and nomarch are Greek terms in origin that became widespread in use during the Ptolemaic period, as the Egyptian word “sepat” would be have been used for the territorial division(“Provinces of Egypt”/King, A. (2024)).

In short a Nomarch can be seen as a governor over a province, and in Ancient Egypt’s history Egypt had at one point up to 42 nomes (Britannica. “nome”). Many Nomarchs were often members of the royal family, members of a powerful family within a locality, and/or trusted allies of the Pharaohs, who were rewarded for their loyalty and services(Wilkinson (2013) p.46-7, 85-7, 107/ Altenmüller 2001, p. 600).

It is through these Nomarchs that a significant portion of our understanding of Ancient Egypt during a number of its dynasties is derived. An earlier example that had been mentioned was Weni from the 6th dynasty(Fletcher, 2016, p.105). As his Autobiography has been a wealth of information for scholars of the latter Old Kingdom period.

During Egypt’s First Intermediate Period, the records of several key Nomarchs have greatly impacted our understanding of this period. One set of nomarchs governing the provinces who would hold such significance bear the name of Khety.

The nome of Asyut was apart of Upper Egypt, as it lies halfway between modern Cairo and Aswan. Thus making Asyut a key stopping point along the Nile into southern Egypt and beyond(Britannica Editors. “Asyūṭ”). Resulting in Asyut being a key pillar in the support of the Herakleopolitan Kings of the 10th Dynasty. One of the capable Nomarchs who governed Asyut was Khety I(Fletcher, 2016, p.116).

Khety I was from a noble family with a history tied to Asyut. As he had inherited his position from his mother, who in turn was the successor to her father. Which became more evident with the support of the Herakleopolitan royalty he had received(Fletcher, 2016, p.116/Hayes(2008)p.469).

One thing I would like to touch on is that with Khety I’s mother, Sitra, is that we see another example of a woman being in a serious position of authority during this period of time(Fletcher, 2016, p.116). At the very least until Khety I had became of age. This example is not a lone in Asyut, as there is a account by a soldier known as Kedes of Gebelein recalling that he was able to complete a military task due to his mother, Ibeb, providing the boats and needed materials(Fletcher, 2016, p.116). The ability to provide such supplies is a fair indication that Kedes mother Ibeb, was a woman of high status with access to resources.

Khety I’s governorship had occurred during a peaceful period, as he was able to have infrastructure projects, such as repairing and building new irrigation canals, addressing a famine and the organization of a provincial militia(Hayes(2008)p.468-9/Fletcher, 2016, p.116).

The provincial militia of Asyut is interesting, because a later governor, Meseheti(Mesehti), of the 11th dynasty, would have it augmented. With Egyptian spearmen, working alongside Nubian archers, slingers and shock troops. Indicated from surviving wooden figurines and artifacts from Meseheti’s tomb(Fletcher, 2016, p.116).

Khety I’s efforts in making Asyut prosperous showed itself amongst its residents, with notable surviving examples involving women. At Matmar there is a tomb of a woman buried with necklaces with gold amulets, and gold seals. Speaking of seals, at least 200 of those recovered had been found in female burials. Including one belonging to a woman of high status, dubbed the “Countess of the South” known as Lady Khety. Who employed her own seal-bearer, a woman known as Tjat(Fletcher, 2016, p.116).

Khety I’s governorship of Asyut was over, as he would be placed within his own tomb at Asyut, known as Tomb V(Spanel, 2001, p.154-6). He would be succeeded by his son Tefibi, during the reigns of Wahkare Khety and Merikare continuing his father’s policies(Spanel, 2001, p.154-6/Hayes(2008)p.469). Known from his biography from his tomb(tomb 3) as prince, count, wearer of the royal seal, sole companion and high priest of the god Wepwawet, he would be a successful Nomarch, like his father(Breasted 1907, § 391 ff/Spanel, 2001, p.154-6).

However late in his governorship Tefibi would be drawn into the brewing conflict between the Herakleopolitan royalty he served against opponents from Thebes. Even leading the efforts of recovering the city of Thinis(Hayes(2008)p.466-67).

It would be his son and successor, Khety II, who would carry on the battle against the Thebans, as he could have quite possibly been among the last governors of Egypt’s 10th Dynasty(Spanel, 2001, p.154-6).

Khety II, governed Asyut during the reign of Pharaoh Merikare(c.2075-40 BCE), who had appointed Khety II as Nomarch of Asyut(Hayes(2008)p.467-70). Records of Khety II’s governorship consists mainly of restoration of the temple to the god Wepwawet and after his death Asyut falls to the Theban forces of 11th Dynasty Pharaoh Mentuhotep II. It would be during his reign that that Khety II’s family would be replaced by Mentuhotep’s supporters as Nomarchs(Hayes(2008)p.467-70). His tomb(Tomb IV), though unfinished is actually one of the best preserved amongst his family. While also containing the name of Pharaoh Merikare(Spanel, 2001, p.154-6/Mahmoud, 2006).

(More on Mentuhotep II and the 11th dynasty later)

Before I move on to our last Normach, Ankhtifi of Nekhen, I would like to briefly cover two important Egyptian gods associated with Asyut. Wepwawet and Anubis.

The Egyptian god Wepwawet(or Upuaut), is an ancient wolf(or jackal) god from Upper Egypt, whose sphere of influence covered funerary rites, war, and royalty. His cult center or chief place of worship was based in Asyut, referred to Lycopolis by the Greeks(https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/wepwawet/).

Wepwawet’s name means “opener of the ways” which could be in regard to his role in guiding the dead through the underworld, being a guide for those in warfare, and/or for royalty. As evident by a Sinai inscription in reference to 3rd Dynasty Pharaoh Sekhemkhet’s victory in the region(Remler, 2000. p. 170). Resulting in Wepwawet being one of the earliest gods recorded, as he was popular in Egypt during the Old Kingdom period, as there are references to him in the Pyramid Texts. As these references are to his role in protecting the Pharaoh during their journey in the afterlife(DuQuesne (1991)p.12).

Wepwawet was so connected with the pharaohs, that a lot of his symbols appears with several types of royal iconography such the uraeus(royal cobra), and on Narmer’s macehead(Evans, L. (2011)). Indicating that Wepwawet was present in Egyptian religion prior to the Old Kingdom.

Because of these royal connections we see Wepwawet being strongly associated with two other important Egyptian gods, Ra and Osiris. The association with Ra appears in later Pyramid Texts, as Wepwawet is stated as proceeding or opening the path before him(Remler, 2000. p. 170). Meanwhile with Osiris, Wepwawet(especially after the First Intermediate Period) funerary aspects became closely tied with Osiris. One notable example is him becoming one of the gods that restores the dead’s abilities at the “Opening of the Mouth” ceremony and afterwards leading them on to Osiris’s court(https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/wepwawet/ /Remler, 2000. p. 170).

However Wepwawet has been often confused with, and at times paired with another famous Egyptian god associated with death, Anubis. In short Anubis like Wepwawet is a very old god in ancient Egyptian culture, appearing as early as the Early Dynastic period, in inscriptions from several First Dynasty pharaohs, such as Hor-Aha, and Djer(Wilkinson 1999, p. 262, 280–81). Though Anubis origins could lie in the Predynastic period due to the building cultural context of associating jackals with graves and the dead(Wilkinson 1999, p. 262/Freeman 1997, p. 91). This is what leads us to Anubis and Wepwawet having associations with each other.

(Anubis is interesting deity that deserves his own article at another time. So for now I am only going over key points for this current chapter)

Anubis is also a god of funerary practices, guiding the dead, and protector of graves(Anubis. Encyclopedia Britannica/Wilkinson(2003)p.188-90). Like Wepwawet, Anubis has canid associations, but what is interesting and confusing about these symbols are the canids that are considered to be the representatives of both gods.

The two primary animals in question are the African wolf and one of the African jackal subspecies(Wegner(2007)p. 139–150). However recent research has upended part of this line of thinking as the African and Egyptian wolves have been determined to be members of the wolf family, when previously they were considered to be a type of jackal(Koepfli K, Pollinger J, Godinho R ... 2015).

With genetic evidence showing that there were two different animals with similar canine features in Egypt and Sudan, it could be that both gods could have been associated with both animals. Not only due to their appearance but also due to both the behaviors of both African species of wolf and jackals being witnessed at gravesites.

However a key difference is present with both gods, as Anubis is generally depicted with a black coloration(Mark, J. J. (2016)Anubis), while Wepwamet is seen as having a white or grey coloration(https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/wepwawet/), but this could be because of fading black pigment(Remler, 2000. p. 170). Which means both he and Anubis could have almost looked identical. Another difference is that Wepwamet still has a war god aspect associated with him, while Anubis generally doesn’t. Though due to their overlap with the realm of death they are often paired together.

While both gods have ties to the Sun god Ra, Anubis prior to Middle Kingdom was the only one known to be called a son of Ra(Hart 1986 p. 25.). Up until the Middle Kingdom Wepwamet birth was tied to the Egyptian goddess Wadjet in the Pyramid Texts(Remler 2000, p. 170/https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/wepwawet/), but Anubis during the First Intermediate Period, according the Coffin Texts, either the goddesses Hesat or Bastet(Hart 1986, p. 26).

This will later change with rise of the worship of Osiris particularly during the Middle Kingdom(more in the future). As we will continue to see how the social and political changes of the First Intermediate Period will continue to affect Egyptian society going forward. Starting with the governorship of Ankhtifi of Nekhen and reign of Pharaoh Merikare.

Ankhtifi of Nekhen:

Ankhtifi(Ankhtify)was the 10th Dynasty Nomrach of Nekhen, or Hierakonpolis(Grimal, 1992, p.142). Ankhitifi was a very capable administrator and military leader, as evident in how he wielded his power in defense of the Herakleopolitan kings and for his ambitions.(Wilkinson, 2013,p.108-9).

As Nekhen, the nome which Ankhtifi governed was not only his base of power but also a key cultural part of Egyptian history and society. As its history stretches back as far as the early Predynastic period(Hierakonpolis. Encyclopedia Britannica/Hirst, K. Kris. (2024)). Where the city of Horus’s ties to kingship reaches deep into Egypt’s Early Dynastic period(Friedman,(2006) p.31/Hirst, K. Kris. (2024)).

Which would mean that a nomarch governing such a important place of the country’s history and cultural heritage would either be held in high esteem if he is a capable administrator or seen as useless if he was viewed as incompetent. In the case of Ankhtifi he was a very capable nomarch, as he governed his province effectively. Well enough that he was able to annex neighboring poorly managed provinces, such as Djeba and Abu. While using his ability to impress the Pharaoh’s officials from Herakleopolis, along with utilizing propaganda about his successes to impress the everyday Egyptians living inside his domains(Wilkinson, 2013,p.108-9/Grimal, 1992, p.142).

His tomb at Hefat was cut into a pyramid shaped hill. Within it he had the details of his career and achievements inscribed. Providing us living nearly 4,000 years later helpful insight into this chapter of Egypt’s First Intermediate Period(Wilkinson, 2013,108/Bunson(2002) p. 249). As Ankhtifi would speak of his military feats(while linking them to god Horus), along with his efforts in addressing food scarcity and famine within the provinces under his leadership. All at the service of Pharaoh Neferkare VII(VIII) of Herakleopolis(Wilkinson, 2013,108-9/Grimal, 1992, p.142).

However the most significant part of Ankhtifi’s career were his battles against the new power coming out of Thebes. As Intef I, the founder of Egypt’s 11th Dynasty would become Ankhtifi’s chief opponent for the remainder of his time as Nomarch of Nekhen(Grimal, 1992, p.143/Wilkinson, 2013,p.109).

Ankhtifi opposed Intef, as the latter had begun his own consolidation of the provinces neighboring Thebes, or making alliances with them, with the Theban leader as their superior(Wilkinson, 2013,p.109). Ankhtifi even gives an account of his military actions against the Thebans from his tomb:

“The general of Armant said to me: ‘Come, oh honest man. Sail with the current down to the fortress of Armant!’ I then went down to the country to the west of Armant and I found that the forces of Thebes and Koptoshad attacked the fortress of Armant (...) I reached the west bank of the Theban province (...) Then my courageous crack troops, yes my bold crack troops, ventured to the west and the east of the Theban nome, looking for an open battle. But no one dared to come out from Thebes because they were afraid of my troops(Grimal, 1992, p.142)”.

Ankhtifi would later seize the province of Edfu, from Intef’s ally, Khuy, however his military success will not last for long. As Theban forces will with in a few years not only retake Edfu, but Nehken and Elephantine at least some time after Ankhtifi’s death. Seeing how his tomb was fully completed(Grimal,1992, p.142-3/Wilkinson, 2013, p.109).

(If you would like to see more of Ankhtifi’s tomb and that of Sobekhotep, another First Intermediate Period official, please check the Su Bayfield’s Egyptian monuments webpage covering El-Moalla(Hefat) here: https://egyptsites.wordpress.com/2009/02/02/el-moalla/ )

The Nomarchs of the 9th-10 Dynasty era have been a very useful resource for the understanding of Egyptian culture and history during this time of collapsed central authority and economic uncertainty(Wilkinson, 2013,p.106-8). For they have left behind a crucial window into this period of history that has been hard to understand, as the First Intermediate Period, has been referred to as a “Dark Age” due to the lack of reliable records from the period, particularly at the beginning(Mark, J. J. (2016)). However how Khety I and II, Tefibi, Ankhtifi and many other Nomarchs carried on Egyptian administration, and culture from their respective provinces has given us an opportunity to capitalize and build a picture of Egypt during the First Intermediate Period.

Now let’s met with the individual who is currently to be considered the last pharaoh of the 10th Dynasty of Herakleopolis. Pharaoh Merikare.

Pharaoh Merikare:

From around 2075-2040 BCE, Pharaoh Merikare will be king in Herakleopolis (Lichtheim, 1980, p. 97). His father is believed to have been either Wahkare Khety or another pharaoh bearing the Khety name(Grimal, 1992, p.141–45/Rice (2004) p. 113/Hayes(2008)p.466–67). As Merikare is the subject of the aforementioned “Teaching for King Merykara” as the author wanted to instruct Merikare in how to govern and address the challenges of his time(Fletcher, 2016, p.115/Hayes(2008)p. 237).

Pharaoh Merikare indeed had challenges during his reign. Such as keeping the nomarchs and other officials of Egypt, still under his control behind him, while maintaining his standing amongst his allies. However the most critical challenge he faced was his opponents in the south, the Thebans(Hayes(2008)p.466–67).

For maintaining the provinces under him. Merikare would appoint loyalists to key positions such as Nomarch. One such example was Khety II of Asyut mentioned earlier. As Merikare would appoint him to succeed his father, Tefibi, in the presence of his royal court. While also supporting the restoration work of the temple of Wepwawet(Hayes(2008)p.466–67). While later advancing upstream to possibly quell a revolt in Shashotep near his domains southern border with the rival kingdom of Thebes(Gardiner 1961, p.113).

If so this likely served as a means of force projection. As it would show to his southern rivals that he was in control of his domain and could respond effectively to threats. Though it appears that he was able to maintain a type of peace between his kingdom and that of Thebes during part of his reign(Hayes(2008)p.466–67).

There is a pyramid associated with Merikare, or it should be said that Merikare has at this time an unidentified pyramid associated with him. It is currently suspected to be at the site of Saqqara, due to the presence of a funerary cult dedicated to him operating alongside one dedicated to 6th Dynasty pharaoh, Teti, near the latter’s own pyramid. As both cults had operated as late as the 12th dynasty(Lehner, 2008 p.165/Hayes(2008)p.467–78). Alongside the documentation of the cult’s presence there are at least 9 steles in Saqqara attesting to the pyramid’s existence alongside Merikare’s funerary cult(Demidchik (2003),p. 25–36).

This is fascinating because if Merikare’s pyramid is identified then he would join the pharaoh Qakare Ibi of the 8th dynasty in having a pyramid during this period(Fletcher, 2016, p.112). The other interesting aspect of Merikare’s funerary cult and existing pyramid is that Merikare is considered to be the end point of Egypt’s 10th Dynasty. Because the fragile peace that existed between the Herakleopolitan and Theban Kings ended towards the end of his reign and sometime afterwards Egypt was reunited under Theban banner. Under the new Pharaoh Mentuhotep II.

The rise of Thebes and the conquest of Mentuhotep II would be what ends Egypt’s First Intermediate Period and begins its Middle Kingdom era(Fletcher, 2016, p.119/Wilkinson, 2013,p.121-22/Jestice, 2023, p.66-7). However Mentuhotep II was the end result of his forefathers trials, failures and accomplishments coming to fruition. So before we talk about Mentuhotep, we have to understand who the Theban kings were that ultimately led to Mentuhotep next time.

Thank you for reading and traveling along with me, as I explore the depths of Egypt’s situation during the First Intermediate Period. Especially in comparison to their neighbors. When we return we will see the influences Egypt’s neighbors had in Thebes ability to reunite Egypt for its next period of prosperity.

For more information please check out my bibliography page below.

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Gill, N.S. (2025, May 14). The Bronze Age. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/bronze-age-117138

Mark, J. J. (2016, September 30). First Intermediate Period of Egypt. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt “Ninth Dynasty of Egypt”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt “Tenth Dynasty of Egypt”

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https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/firstintermed/ “First Intermediate Period”

https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/first-intermediate-dark-age/ “First Intermediate Period: a Dark Age?”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meryibre_Khety “Meryibre Khety”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahkare_Khety “Wahkare Khety”

Fletcher, Joann. The Story of Egypt: The Civilization That Shaped the World. First Pegasus Books hardcover edition. Pegasus Books, 2016. p.105, 112, 115, 116, 119, image Chp 17

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Wilkinson, Toby. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2013. p.46-7, 85-7, 106-8, 121-22, image Chp 16: War & Peace.

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Demidchik, A. (2016). The Sixth Heracleopolitan King Merikare Khety. The Sixth Heracleopolitan King Merikare Khety, in Journal of Egyptian History 9 (2016) 97–120: . https://doi.org/10.1163/18741665-12340028(https://www.academia.edu/37826058/The_Sixth_Heracleopolitan_King_Merikare_Khety)

Altenmüller, Hartwig (2001). “Old Kingdom: Fifth Dynasty”. In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 597–601.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khety_I_(nomarch) “Khety I (nomarch)”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khety_II_(nomarch) “Khety II (nomarch)”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankhtifi “Ankhtifi”

Donald B. Spanel, in Donald B. Redford (ed), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt vol. 1, Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 154-6.

James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, vol 1, 1907, The University of Chicago Press, § 391 ff.

El Khadragu, Mahmoud, “New Discoveries in the Tomb of Khety II at Asyut”, Bulletin of the Australian Centre for Egyptology 17, 2006.

https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/wepwawet/ “Wepwawet”

Pat Remler, Egyptian Mythology A to Z: A Young Readers Companion, Facts on File Inc., 2000. p. 170

Remler, P. (2010). Egyptian Mythology, A to Z. Infobase Publishing. p. 99.

DuQuesne, Terence (1991). Jackal at the Shaman’s Gate. Darengo Publications. p. 12.

Evans, L. (2011). The shedshed of Wepwawet: An artistic and behavioural interpretation. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. https://doi.org/10.1177/030751331109700107(https://www.academia.edu/3559253/The_shedshed_of_Wepwawet_An_artistic_and_behavioural_interpretation)

Goedicke, H. (1971). Re-used blocks from the pyramid of Amenemhet I at Lisht. Metropolitan Museum of Art Egyptian Expedition. p.29-30

Wegner, M.-A. P. (2007). Wepwawet in Context: A Reconsideration of the Jackal Deity and Its Role in the Spatial Organization of the North Abydos Landscape. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 43, 139–150. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27801611

Britannica Editors (2026, January 14). Anubis. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anubis

Mark, J. J. (2016, July 25). Anubis. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Anubis/

André. (2016, July 25). Anubis, Egyptian Sarcophagus. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5399/anubis-egyptian-sarcophagus/

Wilkinson, Toby A. H. (1999), Early Dynastic Egypt, London: Routledge p.262, 280-81

Freeman, Charles (1997), The Legacy of Ancient Egypt, New York: Facts on File p.91

Wilkinson, Richard H. (2003), The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, London: Thames & Hudson, p.188-90

Koepfli K, Pollinger J, Godinho R ...
Genome-wide Evidence Reveals that African and Eurasian Golden Jackals Are Distinct SpeciesCurrent Biology, 2015; 25, 2158-2165

Hart, George (1986), A Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul p.26

Britannica Editors (2023, December 12). Hierakonpolis. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Hierakonpolis

Hirst, K. Kris. (2024, June 25). Hierakonpolis - City at the Start of Egyptian Civilization. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/hierakonpolis-egypt-largest-predynastic-community-171280

Friedman, Renee (2006). “The Fort at Hierakonpolis”. Ancient Egypt. 6 (6) p.31

Bunson, Margaret R. (2002). Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Infobase Publishing. p. 249.

https://egyptsites.wordpress.com/2009/02/02/el-moalla/ “El-Moalla”

Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol. 2. pp. 97-109. University of California Press 1980

Michael Rice, Who is who in Ancient Egypt, 1999 (2004), Routledge, London, p. 113.

Mark Lehner: The Complete Pyramids, Thames & Hudson, 2008, p. 165.

Arkadi F. Demidchik (2003), “The reign of Merikare Khety”, Göttinger Miszellen 192, pp. 25–36.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Merikare “Pyramid of Merikare”

https://english.ahram.org.eg/News/540651.aspx “Secrets of Middle Kingdom tombs”

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Now for the ancient peoples who inhabit Ancient Egypt, Libya, and Kush(modern Sudan), a new change was underway as the Egyptian state’s fragmentation introduces us to not only Egypt’s First Immediate Period, but the Middle Bronze Age.

As mentioned before the Bronze Age is a period of time when the copper alloy of Bronze became the basis of tools and related materials, while human societal development had given way to urbanization, nations, expanded international trade and more.(Bronze Age. Encyclopedia Britannica/Gill (2025, May 14). The Bronze Age).

For our northeastern African residents this period started for them with the unification of Lower(northern) and Upper(southern) Egypt under Narmer(Menes) into one political unit(Fletcher (2016)p.39). Exerting its influence upon its immediate neighbors of the region and western Asia for nearly a thousand years. This period would cover Egypt’s Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods(Wilkinson (2013) p.xii-xiv).

This was until the death of the last legitimate pharaoh of Egypt’s 6th dynasty, Netjerkare(Neitiqerty) Siptah(Fletcher, 2016, p.110). Beginning what would become Egypt’s First Intermediate Period and thus the Middle Bronze Age for the region.

(The 6th Dynasty was covered previously here:Three Neighbors of the Ancient World. Ancient Egypt, Libya, & Kush. Part 3: The Early Bronze Age. Side D: The 6th Dynasty, & The End of The Old Kingdom & the Early Bronze Age. ).

Egypt’s First Intermediate Period(c.2181-2055/40 BCE) is the end result of the Ancient Egypt’s central government collapsing. An event leading the country into internal political turmoil due to competing factions. Some of whom would become known as rival dynasties to modern scholars(Mark, J. J. (2016, September 30)).

Before we explore the nature of Egypt’s status during this period, let’s examine the status of their neighbors during this time. Starting with the ancient inhabitants of Libya.

Ancient Libya of the Middle Bronze Age:

When it comes to our information concerning the people of Ancient Libya during the Bronze Age, it is limited and our primary literary sources are from the Egyptians of the period. For example on reliefs from the pyramid complex of 5th Dynasty pharaoh, Sahure/Sahura. We get the Egyptian name for one of the people of Libya, the Tjemehu(Altenmüller,(2001)p. 598).

The relief indicates that Sahure’s campaigns had yielded large numbers of spoils(ex. livestock), along with depicting him smiting the local leaders of the area(García(2015)p.78). Similar iconography to his would be used by later pharaohs(Baines (2011)p.65-66), keeping with the practice of retaliatory raids against the Libyans based along the coast having been recorded since Egypt’s 1st Dynasty(Wilkinson 2013, p.318). These reliefs also contain the acknowledgment of the Ash(or Yuc), a god tied to the region of Libya. It would be known by the Egyptians by the title of “Lord of the Tehenu(Hart (2005) p.33)”. Though the god Ash(Yuc) had historically been worshipped as a sky god amongst the Amazigh/Berber, Tehenu and other people of the region(Dunand,Zivie-Coche,2005, p. 344).

However the most important references by the Egyptians come from 2 royal officials from the Old Kingdom period. They are Weni and Harkhuf. These references consist information about the Tjemhu-Libyans. Weni the earlier of the two officials presented an earlier cooperative relationship between the Egyptian state and the Tjemhu-Libyans(Wilkinson (2013) p.91-95), while Harkhuf’s account details an antagonistic one(Harkhuf. Encyclopedia Britannica). Their accounts also contain information about the Tjemhu‘s appearances, and their relationship with the people of Nubia(Iacoviello. 2014, p.20-29/1-10).

As we move into the First Intermediate Period, many of the Libyan peoples(along with people from Nubia) would be employed by competing Egyptian factions vying for power as mercenaries(Jestice, 2023, p.63), just as many were at the close of the Old Kingdom during Egypt’s 6th dynasty(Wilkinson, 2013, p.93).

However it should be noted that the peoples of Libya, the western desert and its oases weren’t just a source of plunder, manpower and constant threat to be vigilant against. That the people who inhabited this region had their own unique cultures and were not just apart of Egypt’s economy, but of the economy of the wider Mediterranean and east African world.

In Egypt, Lower(northern)Nubia, and Kerma(Kush), the Libyan people during times of peace and stability were key in trade. Whether it was commodities(the Clayton ring ceramic), ingredients for oils(Tjehenu oil)resins, minerals(semi-precious stones), exotic animals(Ostriches)and livestock. They also had been serving as guides, guards and escorts to Egyptian traders(Moreno Garcia(2018), 147-184)).

Meanwhile more southern populations not only shared the trade routes with the Nubians, but some had begun to settled in Egypt and Lower Nubia. Also it is important to know that a key site for a major ingredient for the practice of Egyptian mummification, and other products such as Egyptian faience and Egyptian blue, and Natron was amongst the Ancient Libyans(Moreno Garcia(2018), 147-184)).

That site being at Wadi El Natrun in the Western desert. A location the Egyptians had made their primary western border with the northern Libyan people. Ensuring their access to this much needed key resource(Moreno Garcia(2018), 147-184)).

As Natron is a native hydrous sodium carbonate compound from the region that was used in ancient times for embalming, ceramic pastes, and as a cleansing agent(“Natron.”Merriam-Webster). Which would mean that the action the Egyptians had taken could be seen as a security measure concerning the resource. Along with maintaining power projection in the area.

What we can see from available Egyptian and Archaeological sources is that the Ancient Libyans, though not organized at similar levels like the Ancient Egyptians, the people of Lower Nubia, and Kerma, had significant influence over their aforementioned neighbors. Through trade activities, assistance, and as mercenaries(Moreno Garcia(2018), 147-184),Moreno García, J. C. (2024), 13(5), 157). Becoming a key element in moving their neighbors, especially Egypt through the First Intermediate Period.

However the Ancient Libyans were not alone in this, as we will now see how the people of Nubia and Kerma will begin to impact the nature of the world during the First Intermediate Period.

Nubia & Kerma(Kush) during the 1st Intermediate Period:

The region of Nubia between southern Egypt and northern Sudan, has played a critical role in the development of the two major powers of northeast Africa. The ancient kingdoms of Egypt and Kerma, the precursor of the kingdom of Kush. The region’s position between both kingdoms provided a source of commerce, resources and manpower for both powers. So much so that securing hegemony or control of Nubia became a key component in both civilizations development. With ancient Egypt having benefited the most by having such control(Haynes, (1992)p. 8–59).

Because Nubia during the First Intermediate Period presented challenges and opportunities for those vying for power in Egypt at the close of the Old Kingdom period(Dr. Amy Calvert 2022), along with the Kingdom of Kerma, and the Nubians living in between the two.

In Lower Nubia, the cultures characterized as the C-Group and Pan-Grave cultures were common placed or held the most influence over this part of ancient Nubia.

The C-Group culture had been around since at least 2400 BCE(The Oriental Institute), whose people were primarily farmers and semi-nomadic pastoralists with unique weapon, pottery, and burial traditions(Africa(1981) p. 253). Due to the collapse of Egypt’s the Old Kingdom period, the Nubians of the C-Group culture were free from Egyptian influence, as the competing factions were more focused upon each other than organizing commercial and military operations into Lower Nubia to exert influence(Grimal, N. (1992) p.140).

It was towards the end of the Old Kingdom, we would see small Nubian states or political units appear in Lower Nubia, such as Wawat, Irtjet, Setju and the Nehasyu(O’Connor (1993)p. 1–112). As the people of Wawat, Irtjet, and Setiju would be instrumental in being the trading partners and forming buffer states between Egypt in the north, and Kerma to the south, along with Yam in Upper Nubia and the Medjay along Nubia’s Red Sea coast(O’Connor (1993)p. 1–112/Fletcher, 2016, p.105).

However this hegemony was over for the Egyptians, as the First Intermediate Period would be the first time in centuries that such influence was no longer present. As illustrated by one of the famous examples of Ancient Egyptian literature, reviewing the period: “The Admonitions of Ipuwer” which notes how foreigners such as Levantine(Western Semitic) peoples or Asiatics(from Egyptian sources) from the Levant, Libyans to the west and Nubia in the south had broken Egyptian power over the region during this time(Fletcher, 2016, p.114).

(More on “The Admonitions of Ipuwer” later).

The nature of the relationship of the people of C-Group culture in Lower Nubia to the Egyptian authorities was one of economic benefit, as they were the source of goods and supplies for the Egyptian garrisons in the Lower Nubia. Exchanging livestock products(milk & meat) for Egyptian goods(amulets, pottery) linking the region to parts elsewhere along the nile and deeper into Africa(Hafsaas, Henriette(2021)).

During the turmoil of the First Intermediate Period, or at least by 2100 BCE, they along with many other Nubians were being recruited by competing Egyptian factions as Mercenaries(“C-Group Culture | Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures”). Which itself would be a continuation of practices from Egypt’s Old Kingdom period.

As it was documented by at least as early as the 6th dynasty, that Nubians were apart of the Egyptian military(Wilkinson, 2013, p.93). Due to their martial skill, particularly Nubians who were skilled archers, as it would result in one of the Egyptian names for Nubia, “Ta-Seti”, “the Land of the Bow(Emberling (2011) p. 8)”.

As the First Intermediate Period moved forward we would see depictions of Lower Nubians who were recruited by rival Egyptian factions. For example in the Asyut tomb of Meseheti, an 11th Dynasty governor, we see wooden models of Nubian troops stored inside(images below), demonstrating the pronounced militaristic environment of the period.

Another example of this complex relationship between Nubians and the Egyptians of Upper Egypt are at sites located in the Gebelein region. During the First Intermediate Period(c. 2118-1980 BCE), Nubians were dwelling at Gebelein, at the southern end of Upper Egypt as it meets Lower Nubia(Ejsmond, 2019). The materials from Gebelein indicates that military expertise weren’t the only reason behind the settlements, because we would see that both groups were culturally integrated with each other.

One example of this are the Nubian stelae, a unique group of tombstones found in the region that helps provide a snapshot into the lives of the members of this Nubian-Egyptian community(Ejsmond, 2019). As such cemeteries of the region, demonstrates how integrated their residents were into Egyptian society, as recovered Old Kingdom papyri implied that officials of Nubian descent were present as early as Egypt’s 4th Dynasty(Ejsmond,(2017)).

These stelae helped provide such key information due to the inscriptions and artwork inscribed upon them. One stela is the funerary stela of Nenu and Sekhathor. A Nubian-Egyptian couple that are depicted with their children. The craftsman responsible for the stela, and artistic choices helped indicate the make up of the family. Resulting in their identification as a Nubian-Egyptian family. The craftsman’s work in presenting the family’s attire(ex. clothing, white slashes) and hairstyles help depict how the family view themselves and their society’s view of them. With one significant detail being how their complexion was depicted on the stela(which would also be seen in others).

When it comes to such artwork, commonly Egyptian men would have a red or reddish brown pigment used for their complexion, while with women it would be more so yellow. In the case of our Nubian-Egyptian family, the wife is shown to be Egyptian by the use of yellow pigment, while the husband a darker red, indicating he is Nubian, or more specifically Nehesi(another Egyptian term for Nubians). While their children are depicted with Nubian features(hairstyles, clothing etc), but the daughter’s complexion unlike her brother’s stand out. As she is depicted with a yellow-red or a yellow with a reddish tone blended in. As if the craftsman wanted to indicate that she is both Nubian and Egyptian by placing her in between her parents(Ejsmond, 2019).

Meanwhile other stelae not only show mixed heritage families, but as well as Nubians who have adopted Egyptian ways, but blended them with their own Nubian identities. We see this with the stelae of Tjenu, Intef and Setnebet, and the stela of Iti II and his wife Neferu. Providing a window into how integrated the communities of Gebelein were(Ejsmond, 2019). Consisting of two groups of people who have been in constant contact with each other since prior to the Old Kingdom(Hafsaas, H. (2010)).

Before moving into developments in Kerma in Upper Nubia. There are two more groups I would like to introduce. The first being the Gash Group, a culture chiefly in eastern Sudan near where the Nile and Atbara rivers meet, not far from modern Eritrea and the Red Sea coast(https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/anthropology/gash-civilization-thrives-africa). This culture’s origins are in the Neolithic period(Neolithic. Encyclopedia Britannica), and it has been a key link for trade between Egypt, Kerma and the Horn of Africa(the region consisting of modern day Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia).

Sites in the region indicate that at the earliest during the 4th millennium BCE(4000-3001BCE), the Gash were apart of the region domesticating sorghum and other Sahelian crops. As well as being apart of the trade network connecting Egypt and Kerma with the land of Punt(https://whitelevy.fas.harvard.edu/between-gash-and-atbara-archaeology-eastern-sudan).

One site that helps indicate the level of complexity of the Gash is the site of Mahal Teglinos. The largest archaeological site of the region, that dates at least to the start of the Middle Bronze Age, as it consists of settlements and large cemeteries, particularly tombs marked by monolithic stelae or structures(https://whitelevy.fas.harvard.edu/between-gash-and-atbara-archaeology-eastern-sudan).

While the Gash Cultural Group played this role, another people tied to the region of Nubia would also begin having a significant impact upon the region for the rest of its history. The Nubian group I speak of are known as the Medjay.

The Medjay from Egyptian sources were associated with Lower Nubia near the Eastern Desert bordering the Red Sea. They were often associated with another but later cultural group, the Pan-Grave people(“Pan-Grave Culture: The Medjay”. University of Chicago Oriental Institute). However archaeological evidence and Egyptian sources has cast doubt over this possibility(Liszka, K. 7:2: 42-60).

Because the earliest mentioning of the Medjay, occurs in Old Kingdom Egyptian sources, such as in the autobiography of the 6th dynasty Egyptian southern governor, Weni(Fletcher, 2016, p.105). Quite possibly being amongst the Nubian mercenaries Weni had recruited and empowered during his time as a general under Pharaoh Pepi I(Moreno García 2010, p. 25). Showing that the Medjay’s presence, along with other Nubians, had demonstrated the value that competing Egyptian nobles had placed in them and their abilities. As the Medjay(and other Nubians) would be a critical factor for competing factions in Egypt throughout the First Intermediate period.

The Medjay like many other Nubians, are believed to had spoken an ancient Cushitic language, possibly related to the Beja language family(Wolff, H.E. (2018, March 22/Rilly 2019, p. 134). Some of you may have heard of the “Medjay” from the 1999 movie remake of The Mummy, and its 2001 sequel The Mummy Returns. As the Medjay are mentioned as Pharaoh Seti I’s personal bodyguards in ancient Egypt, along with being responsible for guarding the tomb of the movie antagonist, Imhotep(Kirby (May 1, 2009)p. 134/Fritze(25 November 2016)p. 363).

Though this is Hollywood, as Imhotep was over a 1000 years prior to Seti I of the 19th Dynasty(Imhotep. Encyclopedia Britannica/Seti I. Encyclopedia Britannica), but the concept of the Medjay being a sort of security force does have merit. As the Medjay’s martial prowess led them being recruited into a unique type of police force later into Egyptian history(Wilkinson (2005), p. 147).

(As we advance this subject & others will be further explored due to more available data).

Meanwhile in Upper Nubia the developments during the First Intermediate Period were significant for Kerma. As the Kingdom of Kerma would still be in its Early period phase(Phillips (2005)p.762), however unlike its more famous northern neighbor, Kerma during the First Intermediate Period, would be a stable kingdom whose influence would reach north to what is now Aswan in Upper Egypt, as Egypt had fragmented at the close of the Old Kingdom period (Phillips (2005)p.762).

As a result Kerma would expand north, beginning a pattern that will continue throughout the history of the region for the next several centuries to come.

The aforementioned C-Group culture of Upper Nubia appears to have either become apart of Kerma or been at the roots of its development. Resulting in this group going on a different trajectory in comparison to their counterparts in Lower Nubia(https://archaeology.org/issues/september-october-2020/features/sudan-kerma-nubian-kingdom/).

As from 2500 -2000 BCE covering from the Old Kingdom to just after the First Intermediate Period, the Kingdom of Kerma had centralized, traded with Egypt during this period, while being seen as a rival, but now Kerma was capitalizing upon the collapse of Egypt’s central government. As rival the factions competed, Kerma would expand its influence northward(Phillips (2005)p.762)). As the city of Kerma itself had been expanding ever since around 2500BCE, with its large fortifications, workshops for ceramics, expansive necropolis, bakeries, large agricultural development and more(https://archaeology.org/issues/september-october-2020/features/sudan-kerma-nubian-kingdom/).

One of the key features of Kerma’s development alongside its agricultural and trade potential, especially as an important intermediary in the trade of luxury items(ivory, ebony, exotic animals)from deeper inside Africa into Egypt(Bonnet(2003)p.16–26). Was its access to and ability for gold processing and copper metallurgy(Chirikure, (2015) p.19-20/DeMola, P. (2013, March 14)).

Because with being able to produce such valuable resources that can be turned into jewelry, tools, weapons and etc gave Kerma a strategic economic edge. Especially when factoring in the location they controlled along the southern Nile in relation to not only Egypt, but the trade routes elsewhere in Africa. In order to secure such a position we see more of the existence of a type of warrior class present in Kerma.

One of earliest evidence of this class’s formation are from cemeteries tied to Kerma in Upper Nubia(Sudan). Known as the Eastern cemetery, this site contains thousands of graves, of the circular mound or tumuli style(tumulus Merriam-Webster/Hafsaas(2015)).

During the Early Kerma period(the Old Kingdom), the graves would hold weaponry that were more symbolic of their pastoral and agricultural lifestyle. Along with materials tied to skeletal trauma(Moreno(2024)), ceramics, and cattle remains, once more reflecting the importance of cattle within their culture(Thompson, L. Chaix, Richards 2008/CHAIX.1992).

As time progressed we see more burials indicating a stratified society. As the burials would have more elaborate structures, indicating individuals of high rank or status prior to and after the First Intermediate Period(Hafsaas (2015)). Including possibly the earliest royal burials associated with Kerma(Honegger(2023)).

(More Kerma/Kush sites in detail at a later time).

One of the key features of a warrior class in Kerma was their ability as archers. Just like their fellow Nubians, a quality that had made the Egyptians seek them out.

One strong possibility being that their effectiveness as archers was tied to the design of their bow. As the bow being used by Kerma and other other Nubians was a akin in size to the English longbow(Kaiser (1976)), but with a more noticeable curvature, as the bowstrings were made of sheep or goat sinew. However what is fascinating was that during the period between the 6th and 12th dynasties, the make up of the arrowheads consisted of microliths, quartz, carnelian, or sometimes flint (Honegger(2023)).

What is interesting about the choice of these materials instead of using metals such as bronze, copper, or iron. Is that this could be a case of the Nubians of this period utilizing materials that are basically more accessible and readily available. As arrows are projectile weapons, which would mean multiple uses(or rounds). So the Nubians using effective stone based materials for the arrowheads could have been a case of capitalizing on an effective but cheaper alternative, instead of having to risk a stronger material for a weapon that might not be recoverable.

Before moving forward, I would like to include a possible early example of gender roles or a distinction between males and females. That with some of the couples’ burials(most likely husbands and wives), the men would have the bow and arrows. While the women would be buried with a staff(Moreno (2024). Possibly to symbolize shepherding, because as stated prior many of the groups of people of Nubia were pastoralists, one of the most essential professions of the people. Though in some cases some women were buried with ornaments, tools(potter’s tools) ceramics and etc(Honegger(2023)).

Speaking of ceramics or pottery it doesn’t seem that the red and black pottery tradition mentioned when covering the Early Dynastic period(https://open.substack.com/pub/rue1b225/p/three-neighbors-of-the-ancient-world-dec?r=1x7pap&utm_medium=ios) had changed much, however let’s recap.

The red and black pottery or ceramics used by the people of Kerma and related Nubian groups appears early on in the Bronze Age or at least between the Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods(Honegger(2018)). They would be created by oxidizing iron rich clay, which resulted in their distinctive red color, while the black rim was a result of it being dipped in sawdust or ash in order to restrict oxygen from the ceramic’s surface(https://risdmuseum.org/art-design/collection/black-topped-pot-1999551). As we would see with some of the pottery from neighboring Upper Egypt.

During the Early Kerma(c2600-2000 BCE ) and the Middle periods(c. 2000BCE), the ceramics(bowls, vases,etc) were generally red polished pottery, fine polished red and black, unpolished light brown bowls, and black and brown/grey varieties with their distinctive geometric motifs or markings. Being used alongside ceramics of Egyptian origin(Honegger(2018)).

These ceramics would be used by both the Egyptians and the people of Kerma, showing another example of how interconnected and dependent Egypt, and Kerma were with each other(Walsh(2018)20. 31-51).

That it would be this interdependency between these groups of people that allowed two major civilizations along the Nile River Valley to flourish. As they would utilize their technological innovations, resources and above all the skill of their own people to develop, organize, and expand. It would be at the beginning of the Bronze Age, around the start of the Early Dynastic period, when Egypt’s early Pharaohs, such as Hor-Aha had launched his military campaign into Nubia, along with Egyptian inscriptions depicting defeated Nubians, at a crucial time of their collective histories. Placing Egypt into the driver’s seat of their relationship, making it clear that no challenger would be tolerated(Fletcher, 2016, p.43/Wilkinson, 2013, p.43-44).

However with the collapse of the Old Kingdom and how the situation unfolded for the First Intermediate Period. This was no longer the case. Kerma has expanded unto the Egypt’s doorstep. While Egypt itself lies within internal upheaval and civil war. This turn of events will not last for very long but the see-saw of fortune will go back and forth between Egypt and Kerma as time moves forward.

The Beginning of the First Intermediate Period in Egypt:

The Ancient Egyptians have entered the First Intermediate period(c.2181-2055/40 BCE), in an unstable position. The quick deaths of pharaoh Pepi II’s successors, Nemtyemsaf II and the mysterious Neitikrety Sa-Path(Siptah), a powerful drought, that affected the Nile and Egypt’s agricultural sector, with weak pharaohs being unable to consolidate their authority. This was the situation of the period for Egypt, thanks in part to the unchecked decentralization of the Egyptian government during the time of their predecessors, resulting in a nobility that would only pay lip service to the monarch, if at all. As they themselves had consolidated their own power and influence within their own nomes or provinces(Megadrought and Collapse, Wilkinson, 2013, p. 103-4, Fletcher, 2016, p. 110-11).

Egypt would fragment during this period into competing factions or rival dynasties for control. The 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, and 11th dynasties would vie for control over Egypt(Mark, J.J(2016)). This period would be seen as a chaotic time for Egypt, that later Egyptians will write about, such as in the Ipuwer Papyrus, or the Admonitions of Ipuwer. As a scribe from the Middle Kingdom period(more at a later time) would write a lamentation over Egypt’s state during the First Intermediate Period(Mark, J.J(2016)).

Due to this chaotic time’s lack of records, especially for the 7th and 8th dynasties. Some scholars have questioned whether the 7th dynasty actually existed(Wilkinson, 2013, p.104), or just consider the 7th and 8th dynasties one unit. The few kings named or identified have appeared in lists associated with both dynasties(Papazian (2015) p.395). As both dynasties were based in the old capital of Memphis but held no real power beyond the city itself. Further more it doesn’t help that with the 7th dynasty, Manetho, the 3rd Century BCE author of the Aegyptiaca(History of Egypt), refers to it being a dynasty with having “70 kings in 70 days”(Fletcher, 2016, p. 112/Jestice, 2023, p.61).

Which can be seen as a poetic way of saying that the time was unstable. Which in turn violates a sacred principle held by the Ancient Egyptians. Ma’at.

Ma’at held an important presence in Ancient Egypt. That of a goddess and of a principle held sacred by Ancient Egyptian culture. You see the goddess, Ma’at, was the Egyptian goddess overseeing truth, justice, harmony, cosmic order and balance(Maat. Encyclopedia Britannica/Mark, J. J. (2016)Ma’at).

As her origins lie early in Egypt’s history with the earliest known accounts of her occurring at least as early as the Old Kingdom period. As she was considered to be either the daughter of the sun god Ra(Re) or of the creator god Atum(Mark, J. J. (2016)Ma’at). She is often associated with the gods Thoth(wisdom,moon) and most notably the Egyptian god of the dead, fertility, and agriculture, Osiris(Mark, J. J. (2016)Ma’at/Maat. Encyclopedia Britannica).

It is with the gods Osiris and Ra that we see her importance within the Ancient Egyptian religion. With Ra, Ma’at is one of the gods that aids him in his journey at night by defending him against the serpent entity Apophis. While with Osiris, Ma’at is present when Osiris is presiding over the souls of deceased Egyptians. In this role Ma’at’s feather of truth is used to weigh the deceased hearts for judgement. If heavier than her feather, the creature Ammut would devour the deceased’s heart sending them to oblivion, if one’s heart is lighter than the feather and judged worthy by Osiris and his court. The deceased is then permitted to journey onto to the paradise known as the Field of Reeds(Mark, J. J. (2016)Ma’at/Maat. Encyclopedia Britannica).

Meanwhile Ma’at was also tied together with an abstract thought of divine order and harmony established from creation. That was reaffirmed by the successful ascension of each new pharaoh(Maat. Encyclopedia Britannica). Ma’at becomes a principle of cosmic or heavenly harmony and balance to staved off chaos. Resulting it becoming the duty of each person to preserve or promote Ma’at, with the Pharaoh being seen as its chief advocate(https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/maat/).

So when it comes to the First Intermediate Period, for the Ancient Egyptians it is seen as dark time of ruin, shame, and chaos. As illustrated in the literature from the succeeding periods, such as the “Admonitions of Ipuwer”, “Complaints of Khakheperraseneb”, and the “Prophecy of Neferti(Wilkinson 2010, p. 174–175)”.

(More on Ancient Egyptian literature and religion separately).

When observing the 7th-8th dynasty Pharaohs, we seen that the principle of Ma’at had been broken. That due to the instability and lack of materials, we often see them being combined as a group due to the lack of materials. With the majority of them only having their names listed in 1 or 2 sources, such as Neferkamin Anu, Nikare, and Neferkamin in the frame Abydos King list and Turin canon but nothing more about them. With many of them, if not the majority are only known for very short reigns(Baker 2008 p. 262–263). However there are at least two with some more information about them though sparse.

One such pharaoh was Qakare Ibi or Ibi(Christelle, A. (2016)). Who had manage to erect a pyramid, which could be amongst the last containing Pyramid Texts(Fletcher, 2016, p.112). Featuring references to the Egyptian god Horus for example:

“Horus receives Ibi at his two fngers, cleanses Qakare in the Jackal Lake, and releases the ka of Qakare from the Duat Lake. He purges the flesh of the ka of Ibi and of the body of Qakare with that which is on the Sun’s shoulders in the Akhet, which he receives, when the Two Lands shine and he opens the gods’ faces. He conducts the ka of Ibi at the Great Compound(Christelle, A. (2016))”.

Another pharaoh would be Neferkauhor. The surviving materials indicates that he was exerting his influence via his daughter, Princess Nebet, upon her husband, the powerful southern official, Shemai of Koptos. Through letters of correspondence in efforts to maintain a form of authority in the region(Fletcher, 2016, p.112). This would result in him issuing decrees in Shemai’s honor, to the point Neferkauhor had practically made Shemai the de facto ruler of several of Egypt’s provinces south of Memphis(Wilkinson, 2013, p. 104).

However it was Pharaoh Neferirkare Pepi III/Neferirkare II, who would have the distinction of being the last pharaoh of the 8th dynasty(Baker 2008 p. 260). As he would be overthrown by the founder of the 9th dynasty, Meryibre Khety or Khety I(Fletcher, 2016, p. 115).

Bringing about the next phase of Egypt’s First Intermediate Period, the civil war era. During the reigns of the Pharaohs of Henen-nesut, better known as Herakleopolis(Heracleopolis).

Thank you for taking your time and journeying with me during the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, for Ancient Libya, Egypt and Kush. As we continue through the First Intermediate Period, we will see how Egypt reconfigures itself.

For more information covering today’s topic please view the bibliography and bonus materials below.

Bibliography: Britannica Editors (2026, March 25). Bronze Age. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Bronze-Age

Gill, N.S. (2025, May 14). The Bronze Age. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/bronze-age-117138

Britannica Editors (2026, March 14). Neolithic. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Neolithic

Fletcher, Joann. The Story of Egypt: The Civilization That Shaped the World. First Pegasus Books hardcover edition. Pegasus Books, 2016. p. 39, 43,105,110,112, 114, 115, image Chp 17,

Wilkinson, Toby. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks, 2013. p. xiii-xiv, 43-44, 91-95, 103-4, 318, image: Chp 16: War & Peace,

Three Neighbors of the Ancient World. Ancient Egypt, Libya, & Kush. Part 3: The Early Bronze Age. Side D: The 6th Dynasty, & The End of The Old Kingdom & the Early Bronze Age.

Mark, J. J. (2016, September 30). First Intermediate Period of Egypt. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt/

Altenmüller, Hartwig (2001). “Old Kingdom: Fifth Dynasty”. In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 598

García, Juan Carlos Moreno (2015). “Ḥwt jḥ(w)t, The administration of the Western Delta and the ‘Libyan question’ in the third millennium BC”. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 101: p.78

Baines, John (2011). “Ancient Egypt”. In Feldherr, Andrew; Hardy, Grant (eds.). The Oxford History of Historical Writing, Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.65-66

Hart, George (2005), The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses (2nd ed.), London: Routledge p.33

Francoise Dunand, Christiane Zivie-Coche, Gods and Men in Egypt: 3000 BCE to 395 CE, Cornell University Press 2005, p. 344

Some Remarks on the Tjemhu Libyans. Vol. 6, No. 4 December 2014 by Annalinda Iacoviello. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections: a scholarly publication integrating Egyptology with Mediterranean, Near Eastern, and African studies. p.20-29/1-10

Britannica Editors (2024, March 11). Harkhuf. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Harkhuf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autobiography_of_Weni “Autobiography of Weni”

Jestice, Phyllis G. Pharaohs: The Rulers of Ancient Egypt for Over 3000 Years. Amber Books, 2023. p. 61, 63

Moreno Garcia, J. C. “Elusive ‘Libyans’: Identities, lifestyles and mobile populations in NE Africa (late 4th – early 2nd millennium BC)”, Journal of Egyptian History 11 (2018), 147-184. https://doi.org/10.1163/18741665-12340046/(https://www.academia.edu/36370497/_Elusive_Libyans_Identities_lifestyles_and_mobile_populations_in_NE_Africa_late_4th_early_2nd_millennium_BC_Journal_of_Egyptian_History_11_2018_147_184)

Moreno García, J. C. (2024). Shaping New Identities in the First Intermediate Period (2160–2050 BC): Archers and Warriors in the Iconography of Upper Egypt. Arts, 13(5), 157. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts13050157

Shay Bar, ‘Clayton Rings’: A link between eastern Sahara and the southern Levant in the Early Bronze Age?, Journal of Arid Environments,Volume 226, 2025, 105283, ISSN 0140-1963,https://doi.org/10.1016 j.jaridenv.2024.105283.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196324001630)

“Natron.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/natron. Accessed 5 Apr. 2026.

Nubia/Kush: Britannica Editors (2026, February 2). Nubia. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Nubia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubia “Nubia”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerma#Pre-Kerma “Kerma”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerma_culture “Kerma culture”

Moreno García, J. C. (2024). Shaping New Identities in the First Intermediate Period (2160–2050 BC): Archers and Warriors in the Iconography of Upper Egypt. Arts, 13(5), 157. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts13050157

Phillips, Jacke (2005). “Kerma and Egyptian Nubia”. In Shillington, Kevin (ed.). Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set. Routledge. p.762

Bard, Kathryn A. (2005-11-03). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 405.

Haynes, Joyce (1992). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Museum of Fine Arts. pp. 8–59.

Dr. Amy Calvert, “Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period, an introduction,” in Smarthistory, February 4, 2022, accessed April 9, 2026, https://smarthistory.org/old-kingdom-first-intermediate-period-introduction/.

“Ancient Nubia: C-Group–Pan Grave–Kerma 2400–1550 BC”. The Oriental Institute.

“C-Group Culture | Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures”. isac.uchicago.edu.

Africa, Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of (1981). Ancient Civilizations of Africa. University of California Press. p. 253.

Grimal, N. (1992). A history of ancient Egypt (I. Shaw, Trans.). Blackwell. p.140

Hafsaas, Henriette, ‘The C-Group People in Lower Nubia: Cattle Pastoralists on the Frontier between Egypt and Kush’, in Geoff Emberling, and Bruce Beyer Williams (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia (2021; online edn, Oxford Academic, 13 Jan. 2021), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190496272.013.10

Emberling, Geoff (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the study of the ancient world. p. 8.

https://whitelevy.fas.harvard.edu/between-gash-and-atbara-archaeology-eastern-sudan “Between Gash and Atbara. The Archaeology of Eastern Sudan”

“Nubian Archers | The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago”. oi.uchicago.edu.

“Pan-Grave Culture: The Medjay”. University of Chicago Oriental Institute

Liszka, K. “Are the Bearers of the Pan-Grave Archaeological Culture Identical to the Medjay-People in the Egyptian Textual Record?” Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 7:2: 42-60. .

Moreno García, Juan Carlos (2010). “War in Old Kingdom Egypt (2686–2125 BCE)”. In Vidal, Jordi (ed.). Studies on War in the Ancient Near East. Collected Essays on Military History. Vol. 372. Münster: Ugarit Verlag. pp. 5–41.

Ejsmond, W. Ejsmond W. 2019. Some thoughts on Nubians in Gebelein region during First Intermediate Period. In M. Peterková Hlouchová, D. Belohoubková, J. Honzl, V. Nováková, Current Research in Egyptology 2018, Proceedings, Czech Institute of Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Prague 2018.

Hafsaas, H. (2010). Between Kush and Egypt: The C-Group people of Lower Nubia during the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period . Between the Cataracts.

Ejsmond, W., (2017) “The Nubian Mercenaries of Gebelein during the First Intermediate Period in Light of Recent Field Research”, Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 14(1), 11-13.

Rilly, Claude (2019). “Languages of Ancient Nubia”. Handbook of Ancient Nubia. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.

Wolff, H.E. (2018, March 22). Cushitic languages. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cushitic-languages

Kirby, Alan (May 1, 2009). Digimodernism: How New Technologies Dismantle the Postmodern and Reconfigure Our Culture. A&C Black. p. 134.

Fritze, Ronald H. (25 November 2016). Egyptomania: A History of Fascination, Obsession and Fantasy. Reaktion Books. p. 363.

Britannica Editors (2025, September 27). Imhotep. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Imhotep

Britannica Editors (2024, June 28). Seti I. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Seti-I

Wilkinson, Toby (2005). Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. p. 147

https://archaeology.org/issues/september-october-2020/features/sudan-kerma-nubian-kingdom/ “A NUBIAN KINGDOM RISES: Excavations at a city on the Nile reveal the origins of an ancient African power”

Bonnet, Charles (2003). The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 16–26.

Chirikure, Shadreck. (2015). Metals in Past Societies. p.19-20 10.1007/978-3-319-11641-9.

DeMola, P. (2013, March 14). Interrelations of Kerma and Pharaonic Egypt. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/487/interrelations-of-kerma-and-pharaonic-egypt/

Budka, J., Aglan, H., & Ward, C. (2025). Reconstructing Contact Space Biographies in Sudan During the Bronze Age. Humans, 5(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/humans5010001

https://www.worldheritagesite.org/connections/tumuli/?sort=name&sort_dir=asc&page=1 “Tumuli”

“tumulus,” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/tumulus. Accessed 4/25/2026.

Hafsaas, Henriette. (2015). Edges of bronze and expressions of masculinity: The emergence of a warrior class at Kerma in Sudan. Antiquity. 87. 79-91. 10.1017/S0003598X00048638.

Moreno García, J. C. (2024). Shaping New Identities in the First Intermediate Period (2160–2050 BC): Archers and Warriors in the Iconography of Upper Egypt. Arts, 13(5), 157. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts13050157

A.H. Thompson, L. Chaix, M.P. Richards, Stable isotopes and diet at Ancient Kerma, Upper Nubia (Sudan), Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 35, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 376-387, ISSN 0305-4403, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2007.03.014.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440307000829)

LOUIS, CHAIX. “Cattle in Ancient Nubia,” 1992.

Honegger, Matthieu. (2023). The Archers of Kerma: Warrior Image and Birth of a State. Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies. 8. 10.5070/D68061375.

Honegger, Matthieu. (2010). The Ancient Kerma area of the Eastern Cemetery. Documents de la Mission Archéologique au Soudan. 7-11.

Kaiser, Robert E., “The Medieval English Longbow: Characteristics and Origin” (1976). Graduate Theses/Dissertations. 821. https://bearworks.missouristate.edu/theses/821

D’itria, E. (2023). The Valuable Role of Animals in the Kerma Culture. Animals in Religion, Economy and Daily Life of Ancient Egypt and Beyond. https://doi.org/10.6093/978-88-6719-285-4

Zieliński, Ł. (2015). New insights into Nubian archery. PAM, 24(1, Regular Issue), 791-801. https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0010.0164.

Walsh, Carl. (2018). Kerma Ceramics, Commensality Practices, and Sensory Experiences in Egypt during the Late Middle Bronze Age. 20. 31-51.

https://kerma.ch “Kerma”

Honegger, Matthieu. (2018). New Data on the Origins of Kerma. 10.2307/j.ctv1q26wt1.3.

https://risdmuseum.org/art-design/collection/black-topped-pot-1999551 “Black-topped pot”

Egypt: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt. “First Intermediate Period of Egypt”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt “Seventh Dynasty of Egypt”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt “Eighth Dynasty of Egypt”

Megadrought and Collapse in Old Kingdom Egypt (c. 2200-1900 BCE). (2025, February 7). Climate in Global Cultures and Histories: Promoting Climate Literacy Across Disciplines. Retrieved Month Date, Year, from https://www.science.smith.edu/climatelit/megadrought-and-collapse-in-old-kingdom-egypt-c-2200-1900-bce/.

Hratch Papazian (2015). “The State of Egypt in the Eighth Dynasty”. In Peter Der Manuelian; Thomas Schneider (eds.). Towards a New History for the Egyptian Old Kingdom: Perspectives on the Pyramid Age. Harvard Egyptological Studies. BRILL. p. 395.

Gill, N.S. “Ma’at: Who Was She?” ThoughtCo, Sep. 2, 2021, thoughtco.com/who-is-maat-119785.

Britannica Editors (2025, May 2). Maat. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maat-Egyptian-goddess

Images of Ma’at courtesy of

Mark, J. J. (2016, September 15). Ma’at. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Ma’at/

https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/maat/ “Maat”

Christelle, A. (2016). An epigraphical journey in the pyramid of Ibi: between textual transmission and mistakes. Current Research in Egyptology 2015: Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Symposium, University of Oxford, 15–18 April, 2015, 20–33. https://doi.org/10.2307/J.CTVH1DGN6.10

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The Middle Paleolithic period, the Middle Old Stone Age from around 200,000-45,000 BP(Before Present), is during the time of the share Mousterian culture of Archaic Humans, Neanderthals and early Modern Humans(Hirst (2025, June 9)).

The Mousterian culture being a tool tradition that is primarily defined as a flake-based tool kit made using the Levallois technique, rather than later blade-based tools. The “flakes” are variously shaped thin stone sheets knapped off a core, while “blades” are flakes which are at least twice as long as their widths for starters. While hafted tools, tools with stone points or blades mounted on wooden shafts and wielded as spears, with the possibility of arrows(Hirst (2021, February 16)).

In the modern nation of Ukraine, the archaeological site of Molodova I helps demonstrates this cultural tradition in Eastern Europe by its occupation layers.

Molodova I(Molodovo), was discovered in 1928, but was first excavated between 1931 and 1932 by I.G. Botez and N. N. Morosan. A.P. Chernysch would continued excavating the site between 1950 and 1961, and again in the 1980s. However detailed information of the site has only recently become available in English(Hirst Molodova I(2024, June 25)).

It is a large multistratified open-air site, showing different layers of use and occupation. Consisting of thousands of mammal remains, particularly mammoths, in pits. Indicating animal processing and butchering, along with at least 20 hearths, a tool production site and structures constructed from mammoth remains(Patou-Mathis, Elsevier BV, 2012). What is also notable about this site is that it is a Neanderthal site. That Neanderthals, a close relative of Early Modern Humans had had been operating this type of site, a mammoth bone settlement(MBS), at least 30,000 years prior to the others in Eastern Europe(Hirst Molodova I(2024, June 25)).

However recently in Ukraine at Medzhibozh(Medzhybizh) A site, evidence of processing mammoth or elephant remains for tools has been dated to at least 400,000 BP(Oleksandr Naumenko, Vadim Stepanchuk 2026). One of the interesting aspects of this site is that it is possibly tied to the Archaic Human species, Homo Heidelbergensis, the most possible last common ancestor of Neanderthals and Homo Sapiens, or Early Modern Humans(https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-heidelbergensis).

(More on Archaic Humans at another time)

Mammoth Bone Settlements(MBS) like those at the site of Molodova I(Molodovo), are typically circular or oval shaped structures, as large modified mammoth bones are use in constructing its walls. Either tied together and/or implanted into the ground. As the settlement’s interior contains a central hearth or others, along with bone pits, tool middens, tool workshops and butchering areas(Hirst,Mammoth(2024, June 25)).

In the case of Molodova I, its structure included 116 complete mammoth bones, including 12 skulls, five mandibles, 14 tusks, 34 pelves and 51 long bones. The bones represent at least 15 individual mammoths, and included both male and female, both adults and juveniles. As the ringed bone based structure was 5x8 meters (16x26 feet) on the inside and 7x10 m (23x33 ft) externally. The assembly and selection of majority of the bones for this circular structure appeared to have been intended by Neanderthals(Hirst(2024, June 25)). Especially when some of the earliest documented evidence of the Early Modern Humans in this region were of the Buran-Kaya III site located in Crimea, of around 32,000 BP of the Gravettian cultural tradition(Prat, Sandrine et al.(2011)).

Another important feature of the site is that Molodova I actually has 5 occupation layers(ex Molodova I layer 3) in relation to its inhabitants practicing the Mousterian cultural tradition. As artifacts from these layers consists of at least 40,000 of locally sourced flint artifacts from the Dniester river terrace. While over 7,000 stone tools of the Mousterian tradition have been detected, along with retouched blades, side-scrapers and Levallois flakes( Hirst,Levallois(2025, April 4))being present as well. With Molodova I layer 4 having at least 2,500 mammoth bones and bone fragments recovered alone(Hirst Molodova I(2024, June 25)).

Molodova I occupation layers also includes 3 from the Upper(Late)Paleolithic. The Late Old Stone Age(c.50,000/40,000-10,000BP), a time when tool diversity expanded to incorporate bone, ivory, and antler, alongside stone. While intricate needles, points and burins (engravers/chisels with sharp, chiseled points or edges), spear throwers, harpoons, bows and arrows use are more evident. Also thanks to the newer more intricate needles, sewing well within the possibility for both Early(anatomical) Modern Humans or EMHs/AMHs and the last Neanderthals(Groeneveld, E. (2017, September 29)).

As both groups are having interactions with each other culturally through the exchange of ideas(Groeneveld, E. (2017, September 29) and intermingling as shown in the genomes of Humans carrying Neanderthal DNA(Reilly, Patrick F et al. (2022).

However it is during the early stages of Upper Paleolithic that our Neanderthal relatives would become extinct(Charoula M. Fotiadou et al(2026). Resulting in the further occupation or use of Moldova I later on during the Upper Paleolithic and the Mesolithic/Middle Stone Age(Mesolithic. Encyclopedia Britannica) by Anatomically Modern Humans(Hirst Molodova I(2024, June 25)).

Showing that prior to the Neolithic(the New Stone Age), that from at least 45,000-7,000 years BP, that the site of Molodova I in western Ukraine, is an important time capsule of human history. That displays not only human ingenuity and cultural development, but also that of our Neanderthal relatives. Along with it possibly being a site of possible cross cultural interactions and influences.

Thank you for reading. For more information about Molodova I and more prehistoric sites please check out my bibliography page below.

Bibliography: Hirst, K. Kris. (2024, June 25). Molodova I (Ukraine). Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/molodova-i-ukraine-paleolithic-site-171818

Nowell, April & d’Errico, Francesco. (2007). The Art of Taphonomy and the Taphonomy of Art: Layer IV, Molodova I, Ukraine. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 14. 1-26. 10.1007/s10816-007-9028-2.

Patou-Mathis, Marylène. “Mammoths Used as Food and Building Resources by Neanderthals: Zooarchaeological Study Applied to Layer 4, Molodova I (Ukraine).” Quaternary International, Elsevier BV, 2012.

Demay, Laëtitia & Péan, Stéphane & Germonpré, Mietje & Obad͌, Theodor & Haynes, Gary & Khlopachev, Gennady & Patou-Mathis, Marylène. (2021). Upper Pleistocene Hominins and Wooly Mammoths in the East European Plain.

Hirst, K. Kris. “Mammoth Bone Dwellings.” ThoughtCo, Jun. 25, 2024, thoughtco.com/mammoth-bone-dwellings-houses-169539.

https://rue1b225.substack.com/p/a-history-of-ukraine-5d3 “A History of Ukraine 🇺🇦. Prehistory of Ukraine: The Paleolithic to the Neolithic.”

https://rue1b225.substack.com/p/our-neanderthal-cousins-deserve-better. “Our Neanderthal cousins deserve better. A defense of Neanderthals.

Gimbutas, M., Adams, R.M., Pittioni, R., Movius, H.L., Braidwood, R.J., Keesing, F.M. (2026, March 21). Stone Age. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Stone-Age

Hirst, K. Kris. (2025, June 9). Introduction to the Middle Paleolithic. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/beginners-guide-to-the-middle-paleolithic-171839

Patrick Schmidt et al. ,Ochre-based compound adhesives at the Mousterian type-site document complex cognition and high investment.Sci. Adv.10,eadl0822(2024).DOI:10.1126/sciadv.adl0822

Britannica Editors (2016, October 17). Mousterian industry. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mousterian-industry

Hirst, K. Kris. (2021, February 16). Mousterian: A Middle Stone Age Technology That May Be Outmoded. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/mousterian-definition-167233

Oleksandr Naumenko, Vadim Stepanchuk, Evidence of bipolar knapping of mammoth ivory at Medzhybizh A: Technological and experimental insights from a lower Palaeolithic context, Quaternary International,Volume 751,2026,110049, ISSN 1040-6182, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2025.110049. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618225003921)

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-heidelbergensis “Homo heidelbergensis”

https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-heidelbergensis/ “Homo heidelbergensis”

Laura T. Buck, Chris B. Stringer, Homo heidelbergensis, Current Biology, Volume 24, Issue 6, 2014, Pages R214-R215, ISSN 0960-9822, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.12.048. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982213016072)

Prat, Sandrine et al. “The oldest anatomically modern humans from far southeast Europe: direct dating, culture and behavior.” PloS one vol. 6,6 (2011): e20834. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020834

Carpenter, Jennifer (20 June 2011). “Early human fossils unearthed in Ukraine”. BBC.

Hirst, K. Kris. (2025, April 4). Levallois Technique - Middle Paleolithic Stone Tool Working. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/levallois-technique-stone-tool-working-171528

Groeneveld, E. (2017, September 29). Paleolithic. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Paleolithic/

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/genetics/ancient-dna-and-neanderthals “Ancient DNA and Neanderthals”

Alexander Platt et al. ,Interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans was strongly sex biased.Science391,922-925(2026).DOI:10.1126/science.aea6774

Reilly, Patrick F et al. “The contribution of Neanderthal introgression to modern human traits.” Current biology : CBvol. 32,18 (2022): R970-R983. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.08.027

Charoula M. Fotiadou et al, Archaeogenetic insights into the demographic history of Late Neanderthals, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences(2026). DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2520565123

https://www.si.edu/stories/why-did-neanderthals-go-extinct “Why did Neanderthals go extinct?”

Britannica Editors (2025, December 5). Mesolithic. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Mesolithic

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Ukraine 🇺🇦 support groups:

https://commission.europa.eu/topics/eu-solidarity-ukraine/helping-ukrainians-how-you-can-donate-and-engage_en “Helping Ukrainians: how you can donate and engage”

https://u24.gov.ua “OFFICIAL FUNDRAISING PLATFORM OF UKRAINE”

Individual First Aid Kits (IFAKs) and Mass Casualty Kits(MCKs) are very important for civilians, first responders and military personnel alike, and the people here can really use them. Especially at this time. So below 👇🏽 there are some organizations and groups listed who tries their hardest to deliver these supplies to the people who need them. If you can please consider donating their efforts or help spread the word to those who can learn about doing so.

https://whitestork.us/about

https://www.razomforukraine.org

https://unitewithukraine.com/product/A2DF266/ifak-individual-first-aid-kit

https://www.euam-ukraine.eu/news/looking-back-providing-first-aid-kits-to-ukrainian-law-enforcement/

https://www.theoutreachfoundation.org/blog/2024/6/3/ifaks-delivered-to-ukraine-an-update

https://www.gofundme.com/f/support-odessa-donate-generators-to-survive-the-winter?utm_campaign=fp_sharesheet&utm_content=amp17_ta&utm_medium=customer&utm_source=copy_link&lang=en_US

https://www.help99.co

If you would like to help me with my work please consider becoming a subscriber(free or paid are fine).

But if you want to just chip in(either as a free subscriber or just as a supporter) here is my Ko-fi page https://ko-fi.com/rueryuzaki and my Venmo @Rue_Ryuzaki287

I hate to ask but due to my kid brother’s recent episodes and his upcoming appointments being out of town next week, it would help a lot if folks can chip in to help with these road trips if possible.

Either at my Ko-fi page https://ko-fi.com/rueryuzaki or my Venmo @Rue_Ryuzaki287

However today I am going to cover a topic that I have experienced when I was young(I’m 39 at the time of my writing of this article). That experience being encountering tithes and offerings and the debates concerning them.

Growing up I’ve watched some of my family participate in the practice of giving tithes, and offerings to their church or the religious community they belonged to. Mainly because it was taught to them to do so. However what was interesting was the explanations behind their donations.

Generally speaking the tithes and offerings were monetary. Given for charity, such as the institutions’s ability to support itself and its community activities. However what I had noticed was that the explanations behind the purpose of these types of “charitable donations”. As they generally followed the explanations of “we’re supposed to give a tenth of what we make to the church for a blessing” or in terms of the offerings “we give whatever we are able for the Lord’s work”. How those donations were used depended heavily upon the religious organizations in particular. Such as some using them to support community outreach programs that the institution sponsors such as food banks, soup kitchens, medical services, wellness checks, transportation for the elderly, and/or students pursuing higher education. Alongside keeping the institution operating.

However how would the biblical Israelites(and later Jews of the classical period and later antiquity¹)had understood their customs of tithing and offerings? Well let’s check with the available sources or materials to help develop this picture.

The straightforward definition of “Tithe(s)”is “a tenth part of something paid as a voluntary contribution or as a tax especially for the support of a religious establishment” and for its verb form “to pay or give a tenth part of especially for the support of a religious establishment or organization(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Tithe)”. While “Offering(s)” in a religious context is simply defined as “a sacrifice ceremonially offered as a part of worship” and/or “a contribution to the support of a church(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Offering)”.

(It doesn’t have to be a church it could be any religious institution or any other institution).

Another similar term that people may hear or see used is “Alms”. Which simply means “something (such as money or food) given freely to relieve the poor(Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Alms)”. Similar enough that it can be interchangeable with “Offerings” but in terms of language it’s usually seen in older speech, especially in older English translations of the bible or bible’s with books based on older greek manuscripts for example:

“Prayer with fidelity is good, and almsgiving with righteousness is better than wealth with injustice. It is better to give alms than to lay up gold, for almsgiving saves from death and purges away every sin. Those who give alms will enjoy a full life, but those who commit sin and do wrong are their own enemies.”Tobit‬ ‭12‬:‭8‬-‭10‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

“Do not grow weary when you pray; do not neglect to give alms.”‭‭Sirach‬ ‭7‬:‭10‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

“Nevertheless, be patient with someone in humble circumstances, and do not keep him waiting for your alms.”Sirach‬ ‭29‬:‭8‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

“But when you give alms, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing, so that your alms may be done in secret, and your Father who sees in secret will reward you.”Matthew‬ ‭6‬:‭3‬-‭4‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

In other versions or translations you would see words like charity or charitable being used instead: “But you, when you practice charitable giving, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing, in order that your charitable giving may be in secret, and your Father who sees in secret will reward you.”Matthew‬ ‭6‬:‭3‬-‭4‬ ‭LEB‬‬

Interestingly we see a theme for charity or willful giving being praised but looking at the Torah or Tanakh/the Hebrew Bible(or Old Testament for some) we see that tithes and charitable contributions have a deeper meaning or context for those involved in their practice.

First let’s establish how tithes and offerings occur within the biblical texts and traditions by noting their significant occurrences. Occurrences that tells us, the readers, that they’re either important, significant, and/or defining a purpose for us to see and understand. Starting with the sections of the biblical text that goes into some details concerning them.

“After his return from the defeat of Chedorlaomer and the kings who were with him, the king of Sodom went out to meet him at the Valley of Shaveh, that is, the King’s Valley. And King Melchizedek of Salem brought out bread and wine; he was priest of God Most High. He blessed him and said, “Blessed be Abram by God Most High, maker of heaven and earth, and blessed be God Most High, who has delivered your enemies into your hand!” And Abram gave him one-tenth of everything.”

‭‭Genesis‬ ‭14‬:‭17‬-‭20‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

“So Jacob rose early in the morning, and he took the stone that he had put under his head and set it up for a pillar and poured oil on the top of it. He called that place Bethel, but the name of the city was Luz at the first. Then Jacob made a vow, saying, “If God will be with me and will keep me in this way that I go and will give me bread to eat and clothing to wear, so that I come again to my father’s house in peace, then the LORD shall be my God, and this stone, which I have set up for a pillar, shall be God’s house, and of all that you give me I will surely give one-tenth to you.”” Genesis‬ ‭28‬:‭18‬-‭22‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

““All tithes from the land, whether the seed from the ground or the fruit from the tree, are the LORD’s; they are holy to the LORD. If persons wish to redeem any of their tithes, they must add one-fifth to them. All tithes of herd and flock, every tenth one that passes under the shepherd’s staff, shall be holy to the LORD. Let no one inquire whether it is good or bad or make substitution for it; if one makes substitution for it, then both it and the substitute shall be holy and cannot be redeemed.” These are the commandments that the LORD gave to Moses for the Israelites on Mount Sinai.”

‭‭Leviticus‬ ‭27‬:‭30‬-‭34‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

““To the Levites I have given every tithe in Israel for a possession in return for the service that they perform, the service in the tent of meeting. From now on the Israelites shall no longer approach the tent of meeting, or else they will incur guilt and die. But the Levites shall perform the service of the tent of meeting, and they shall bear responsibility for their own offenses; it shall be a perpetual statute throughout your generations. But among the Israelites they shall have no allotment, because I have given to the Levites as their portion the tithe of the Israelites, which they set apart as an offering to the LORD. Therefore I have said of them that they shall have no allotment among the Israelites.” The LORD spoke to Moses, saying, “You shall say to the Levites: When you receive from the Israelites the tithe that I have given you from them for your portion, you shall set apart an offering from it to the LORD, a tithe of the tithe. It shall be reckoned to you as your gift, the same as the grain of the threshing floor and the fullness of the winepress. Thus you also shall set apart an offering to the LORD from all the tithes that you receive from the Israelites, and from them you shall give the LORD’s offering to the priest Aaron. Out of all the gifts to you, you shall set apart every offering due to the LORD; the best of all of them is the part to be consecrated.”

‭‭Numbers‬ ‭18‬:‭21‬-‭29‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

“You shall not serve the LORD your God in such ways. But you shall seek the place that the LORD your God will choose out of all your tribes as his habitation to put his name there. You shall go there, bringing there your burnt offerings and your sacrifices, your tithes and your donations, your votive gifts, your freewill offerings, and the firstlings of your herds and flocks. And you shall eat there in the presence of the LORD your God, you and your households together, rejoicing in all the undertakings in which the LORD your God has blessed you. “You shall not act as we are acting here today, all of us according to our own desires, for you have not yet come into the rest and the possession that the LORD your God is giving you. When you cross over the Jordan and live in the land that the LORD your God is allotting to you, and when he gives you rest from your enemies all around so that you live in safety, then you shall bring everything that I command you to the place that the LORD your God will choose as a dwelling for his name: your burnt offerings and your sacrifices, your tithes and your donations, and all your choice votive gifts that you vow to the LORD.” ‭‭Deuteronomy‬ ‭12‬:‭4‬-‭11‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

“And you shall rejoice before the LORD your God, you together with your sons and your daughters, your male and female slaves, and the Levites who reside in your towns (since they have no allotment or inheritance with you).

Nor may you eat within your towns the tithe of your grain, your wine, and your oil, the firstlings of your herds and your flocks, any of your votive gifts that you vow, your freewill offerings, or your donations; these you shall eat in the presence of the LORD your God at the place that the LORD your God will choose, you together with your son and your daughter, your male and female slaves, and the Levites resident in your towns, rejoicing in the presence of the LORD your God in all your undertakings. Take care that you do not neglect the Levite as long as you live in your land.”

‭‭Deuteronomy‬ ‭12‬:‭12‬, ‭17‬-‭19‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

““Set apart a tithe of all the yield of your seed that is brought in yearly from the field. In the presence of the LORD your God, in the place that he will choose as a dwelling for his name, you shall eat the tithe of your grain, your wine, and your oil, as well as the firstlings of your herd and flock, so that you may learn to fear the LORD your God always. But if, when the LORD your God has blessed you, the distance is so great that you are unable to transport it, because the place where the LORD your God will choose to set his name is too far away from you, then you may turn it into money. With the money secure in hand, go to the place that the LORD your God will choose; spend the money for whatever you wish: oxen, sheep, wine, strong drink, or whatever you desire. And you shall eat there in the presence of the LORD your God, you and your household rejoicing together. As for the Levites resident in your towns, do not neglect them, because they have no allotment or inheritance with you. “Every third year you shall bring out the full tithe of your produce for that year and store it within your towns; the Levites, because they have no allotment or inheritance with you, as well as the resident aliens, the orphans, and the widows in your towns, may come and eat their fill so that the LORD your God may bless you in all the work that you undertake.”Deuteronomy‬ ‭14‬:‭22‬-‭29‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

““When you have finished paying all the tithe of your produce in the third year (which is the year of the tithe), giving it to the Levites, the aliens, the orphans, and the widows, so that they may eat their fill within your towns, then you shall say before the LORD your God, ‘I have removed the sacred portion from the house, and I have given it to the Levites, the resident aliens, the orphans, and the widows, in accordance with your entire commandment that you commanded me; I have neither transgressed nor forgotten any of your commandments:”Deuteronomy‬ ‭26‬:‭12‬-‭13‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

As we see from the verses starting in Genesis and ending in Deuteronomy in the Torah or “Laws of Moses” section of the Hebrew Bible, we have the traditional basis and sets of guidelines or expectations concerning the practice of tithes or in Hebrew :מעשר; ma’aser. While the terms for different types of offerings are Korban (קָרְבָּן), Minchah (מִנְחָה), Terumah (תְּרוּמָה) and etc.

(More on these later as my core purpose lies elsewhere).

As the tradition’s beginning is pointed to two of the ancient Israelites ancestors, known as the “Patriarchs”, Abraham, as Abram(‭‭Genesis‬ ‭14‬:‭17‬-‭20‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬) and Jacob(Genesis‬ ‭28‬:‭18‬-‭22‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬). Abraham as Abram, is noted in giving a tenth, a portion of his victory as a donation, during his meeting with King Melchizedek of Salem(Genesis‬ ‭14‬:‭17‬-‭20‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬). As he received a blessing indicating that he had divine favor and showing his gratitude for being able to accomplish his goal. Meanwhile Jacob’s case relates to his journey to the area referred to Paddan-Aram, Aram, Syria or the upper Mesopotamia region that modern day Syria, Turkey and Iraq meets(Kraeling, E.G.H. (1918) p. 24). After his dream concerning a divine message of a bond that he, his descendants and the Most High would share, and the oath or vow he makes after waking up before he carried on his journey(Genesis‬ ‭28‬:‭18-22‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬).

When looking at these encounters we see that the view point is that for success and accomplishments(before & after). That setting aside an offering of value is deemed necessary in order to express gratitude and/or to seek favor in ones’ endeavors. As the success or divine favor is not guaranteed to happen or that it didn’t have to happen at all(more on this later).

However after the exodus out of Egypt, we see that in Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy that tithes and offerings have a form of codifying occurring.

This codification follows a specific format. One that centers the practice’s purpose on certain members of the ancient Israelites population. Those tied to the priesthood and the tribe of Levi, and the widows, orphans, and/or the less fortunate.

Starting with the Levitical priesthood and their tribe. We see that the tithing and offerings are primarily connected to them for two major reasons. One being that they were set aside for the priestly services of the worship of YHWH/ the God of Israel, and in the process scattered amongst the lands of the relatives. Particularly in small towns or villages that would have unique purposes(ex. Numbers 1:48-54, 3:1-52, chap4, 8:5-26, & 35:1-8).

Since the tribe of Levi was placed into a position that removes a lot of their self determination, as they were spread amongst the other tribes of Israelites. Giving each of their related tribes access to a type of religiously connected service. Whether their towns being places of refuge(Numbers 35:9-15) or the priesthood charge with the religiously tied services for the God of Israel(Numbers chaps 3 & 5).

These tasks were costly for them to perform. Especially in the nature of conducting the daily and weekly services, the key festivals rituals alongside the yearly ones( Exodus 29:38-42, Numbers 3:1-13, 3:17-39, 8:5-26). This would have been time consuming work for members of the tribe and especially those of the priestly class among them.

As a result we see that with the tithes and offerings their utilization is a rooted in a support system for the Levites as they have been primarily regulated to the religious services of the Israelites across each of the tribes at some capacity. As the Torah or Laws of Moses repeats “ “At that time the LORD set apart the tribe of Levi to carry the ark of the covenant of the LORD, to stand before the LORD to minister to him and to bless in his name, to this day. Therefore Levi has no allotment or inheritance with his kindred; the LORD is his inheritance, as the LORD your God promised him.)”‭‭Deuteronomy‬ ‭10‬:‭8‬-‭9‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

“spend the money for whatever you wish: oxen, sheep, wine, strong drink, or whatever you desire. And you shall eat there in the presence of the LORD your God, you and your household rejoicing together. As for the Levites resident in your towns, do not neglect them, because they have no allotment or inheritance with you.”

‭‭Deuteronomy‬ ‭14‬:‭26‬-‭27‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

In constructing this tribe’s duties in bearing the religious responsibilities of the Israelites, we can see that the instructions for tithes were being set as means of ensuring that the Levites had sufficient resources or supports at least to the level of their compatriots.

This is also seen in the utilization of the various types of offerings. For example with the grain, guilt, and purification offerings(Leviticus 6:14-30), you see that the priests and those involved eat of the offering as part of the ritual. Likewise with those who have taken the Nazarite/Nazirite vow(Nazirite. Encyclopedia Britannica) having a similar ritual(Numbers 6:1-21).

However the utilization of the practice of tithes and offerings weren’t just a social safety net and religious contract before the Levites and their fellow Israelites. They are also a social safety net for others in their communities.

This can be seen in other passages that identify such groups that are allowed to access to these resources.

As seen with this tithe concerning a specific type of harvest ““Every third year you shall bring out the full tithe of your produce for that year and store it within your towns; the Levites, because they have no allotment or inheritance with you, as well as the resident aliens, the orphans, and the widows in your towns, may come and eat their fill so that the LORD your God may bless you in all the work that you undertake.” Deuteronomy‬ ‭14‬:‭28‬-‭29‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

Which is also reiterated in Deuteronomy‬ ‭26:12-15 ‭NRSVUE‬‬, but this sentiment for foreigners(aliens/strangers), widows and orphans occurs elsewhere for example:““When you reap your harvest in your field and forget a sheaf in the field, you shall not go back to get it; it shall be left for the alien, the orphan, and the widow, so that the LORD your God may bless you in all your undertakings. When you beat your olive trees, do not strip what is left; it shall be for the alien, the orphan, and the widow. “When you gather the grapes of your vineyard, do not glean what is left; it shall be for the alien, the orphan, and the widow. Deuteronomy‬ ‭24‬:‭19‬-‭21‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬

(This reoccurs in Leviticus 19:9-10, 23:22)

This holds such weight that it is emphasized a lot not only in the Torah or Laws of Moses section of the Hebrew Bible(ex. Exodus 22:21-24, Deuteronomy 10:18-19) but in the writings known as the Prophets: ““learn to do good; seek justice; rescue the oppressed; defend the orphan; plead for the widow.”Isaiah‬ ‭1‬:‭17‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, “Thus says the LORD: Act with justice and righteousness and deliver from the hand of the oppressor anyone who has been robbed. And do no wrong or violence to the alien, the orphan, and the widow, or shed innocent blood in this place.”Jeremiah‬ ‭22‬:‭3‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, and ““The word of the LORD came to Zechariah, saying: “Thus says the LORD of hosts: Render true judgments, show kindness and mercy to one another; do not oppress the widow, the orphan, the alien, or the poor; and do not devise evil in your hearts against one another.”Zechariah‬ ‭7‬:‭8‬-‭10‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬.

The importance of following through in adhering to these guidelines is even seen in non-canonical texts that were in circulation prior to canonization(biblical literature. Encyclopedia Britannica). Such examples being the book of Tobit 1:6-8, as Tobit recounts adhering to the Torah/Laws of Moses concerning the tithes, offerings and how he ensured that his offerings got to the Priesthood, widows, orphans and foreigners who joined his people. While Sirach 4:10 is repeating the message of being present for orphans.

So far we see that in the core religious text there is a religious tradition/obligation that is being pushed concerning how these types of offerings are being used and who they can be used for. However what is also important is to look into sources by Jews from antiquity outside of the biblical texts, to see if they share any view points that would support the view of these practices serving both a religious and social welfare role.

First looking at 1st Century CE, Jewish historian and writer, Flavius Josephus(I would like to do a summary on him and our 2nd example in the future).

In Josephus’s work, “The Antiquities of the Jews” he writes: “3. And now Moses, because the tribe of Levi was made free from war, and warlike expeditions; and was set apart for the divine worship; lest they should want, and seek after the necessaries of life, and so neglect the temple; commanded the Hebrews, according to the will of God, that when they should gain the possession of the land of Canaan, they should assign forty eight good and fair cities to the Levites; and permit them to enjoy their suburbs, as far as the limit of two thousand cubits would extend from the walls of the city. And besides this, he appointed that the people should pay the tythe of their annual fruits of the earth, both to the Levites, and to the Priests. And this is what that tribe receives of the multitude. But I think it necessary to set down what is paid by all peculiarly to the Priests.

4. Accordingly he commanded the Levites to yield up to the Priests thirteen of their forty-eight cities; and to set apart for them the tenth part of the tythe which they every year receive of the people; as also that it was but just to offer to God the first fruits of the intire product of the ground; and that they should offer the first born of those four-footed beasts that are appointed for sacrifices, if it be a male, to the Priests, to be slain; that they and their intire families may eat them in the holy city: but that the owners of those first born, which are not appointed for sacrifices, in the laws of our country, should bring a shekel and a half in their stead; but for the first born of a man, five shekels: that they should also have the first fruits out of the shearing of the sheep; and that when any baked bread-corn, and made loaves of it, they should give somewhat of what they had baked to them. Moreover, when any have made a sacred vow, I mean those that are called Nazarites, that suffer their hair to grow long, and use no wine; when they consecrate their hair, and offer it for a sacrifice, they are to allot that hair for the Priests [to be thrown into the fire]. Such also as dedicate themselves to God, as a Corban, which denotes what the Greeks call a gift, when they aredesirous of being freed from that ministration, are to lay down money for the Priests; thirty shekels, if it be a woman; and fifty if it be a man: but if any be too poor to pay the appointed sum, it shall be lawful for the Priests to determine that sum, as they think fit. And if any slay beasts at home, for a private festival, but not for a religious one; they are obliged to bring the maw, and the cheek, [or breast,] and the right shoulder of the sacrifice to the Priests. With these Moses contrived that the Priests should be plentifully maintained; besides what they had out of those offerings for sins, which the people gave them; as I have set it down in the foregoing Book. He also ordered, that out of every thing allotted for the Priests, their servants, [their sons,] their daughters, and their wives should partake, as well as themselves: excepting what came to them out of the sacrifices that were offered for sins. For of those none but the males of the family of the Priests might eat; and this in the temple also; and that the same day they were offered(Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 4.4.3-4).”

“8. Let there be taken out of your fruits a tenth, besides that which you have allotted to give to the Priests and Levites. This you may indeed sell in the countrey, but it is to be used in those feasts and sacrifices that are to be celebrated in the holy city. For it is fit that you should enjoy those fruits of the earth, which God gives you to possess, so as may be to the honour of the donor( Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 4.8.8).”

22. Besides those two tythes, which I have already said you are to pay every year; the one for the Levites; the other for the festivals; you are to bring every third year a third tythe, to be distributed to those that want; (24) to women also that are widows, and to children that are orphans. But as to the ripe fruits, let them carry that which is ripe first of all unto the temple: and when they have blessed God for that land which bare them, and which he had given them for a possession; when they have also offered those sacrifices which the law has commanded them to bring; let them give the first fruits to the Priests. But when any one hath done this, and hath brought the tythe of all that he hath; together with those first fruits that are for the Levites, and for the festivals; and when he is about to go home, let him stand before the holy house, and return thanks to God, that he hath delivered them from the injurious treatment they had in Egypt; and hath given them a good land, and a large, and lets them enjoy the fruits thereof; and when he has openly testified that he had fully paid the tithes [and other dues] according to the laws of Moses; let him intreat God that he will be ever merciful and gracious to him; and continue so to be to all the Hebrews; both by preserving the good things which he hath already given them; and by adding what it is still in his power to bestow upon them(Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 4.8.22).”

From these passages we see a more compacted summary of the verses mentioned above pertaining to the tithes and offerings, the Levities role in administering the religious services, and the provisions concerning the poor, foreigners, widows and orphans. Which is very helpful with regard to searching for materials, but what they show is that the nature of these practices revolves around a ritual that provides a safety net for a priestly class spread amongst the other Israelite tribes, that ensures that they accomplish their duties, but that this same safety net is accessible to other members of their society. Who they see being amongst the most vulnerable when it comes to their wellbeing and security.

However this notion is also present in the writings of 1st century Jewish scholar, Philo of Alexandria. Most notably in his writings concerning these laws within Torah or the Laws of Moses. Like Josephus, Philo gives a overall(but longer) overview of the same subject pertaining to the Levites, the priests, offerings and rituals concerning them in his Special Laws I from section 24-48(The Works of Philo). However it is noted that Philo first identifies the purpose of the offering system as a revenue system in regards to the Levites and importantly those in the office of the Priesthood due to the tribe not having any comparable land domains like their fellow Israelites( Philo, Special Laws I 27:131).

A much clearer occurrence of this point is also in his Special Laws I: “XXVIII. (141) After this he also appointed another source of revenue of no insignificant importance for the priests, bidding them to take the first fruits of every one of the revenues of the nation namely, the first fruits of the corn, and wine, and oil, and even of the produce of all the cattle, of the flocks of sheep, and herds of oxen, and flocks of goats, and of all other animals of all kinds; and how great an abundance of these animals there must be, any one may conjecture from the vast populousness of the nation; (142) from all which circumstances it is plain that the law invests the priests with the dignity and honour that belongs to kings; since he commands contributions from every description of possession to be given to them as to rulers; (143) and they are accordingly given to them in a manner quite contrary to that in which cities usually furnish them to their rulers; for cities usually furnish them under compulsion, and with great unwillingness and lamentation, looking upon the collectors of the taxes as common enemies and destroyers, and making all kinds of different excuses at different times, and neglecting all laws and ordinances, and with all this jumbling and evasion do they contribute the taxes and payments which are levied on them. (144) But the men of this nation contribute their payments to the priests with joy and cheerfulness, anticipating the collectors, and cutting short the time allowed for making the contributions, and thinking that they are themselves receiving rather than giving; and so with words of blessing and thankfulness, they all, both men and women, bring their offerings at each of the seasons of the year, with a spontaneous cheerfulness, and readiness, and zeal, beyond all description(Philo, Special Laws I 28:141-44)”.

But Philo doesn’t stop here in his Special Laws IV, from sections 34-36, Philo talks of the importance of this system, in particular those in the position of power and authority in caring for the most vulnerable in ancient Jewish, Israelite society. Those being the poor, strangers/foreigners, widows and orphans(Philo, Special Laws IV 34:176-182).

He notes this importance by stating: “XXXIV. (176) We have here mentioned one example of what we before alluded to. We must now add an instance of the second kind. I said that the causes of men of humble condition were important; for the widow, and the orphan, and the stranger are powerless and humble. And it is right that the supreme King should be the judge in their case, the Ruler who has the supreme authority over the whole nation; since, according to Moses, even God, the Ruler of the universe, did not exclude them from the provisions of his laws; (177) for when Moses, that holy interpreter of the will of God, is raising a hymn in praise of the virtues of the living God in these terms, “God is great and mighty, one who is no respecter of persons, and who does not take gifts to guide him in his Judgment.” he adds, in whose case it is that he gives judgment, not in the case of satraps, and tyrants, and men who have the power by land and sea, but he gives judgment respecting the stranger, and the orphan, and the widow(Philo, Special Laws IV, 34:176-177).”

That Philo reiterates from the same point of view illustrated from the aforementioned biblical verses, that this class of people in these states are a protected group, in the care of the leadership or state. Which is enacted through the collective responsibility of those with the means to do so.

Going further in section 35:183-86, he says “The law also forbids, by a most just and reasonable prohibition, the man who has undertaken the care and government of the common interests of the state, to behave with treachery among the people; for a treacherous disposition is the mark of an illiberal and very slavish soul, which seeks to overshadow its real nature by hypocrisy; (184) for, in reality, a ruler ought to stand up in defence of his subjects as a father would in defence of his children, that he may be honoured by them as if they were his own real children; on which account good rulers are the common parents of their cities and nations, if one may say the plain truth, displaying equal, and sometimes even superior, good will to them; (185) but those men who acquire great power and authority to the injury and damage of their subjects, ought to be entitled, not rulers, but enemies, inasmuch as they are acting the part of implacable foes. Not but what those who injure one treacherously are even more wicked than those who oppose one openly, since it is possible to repel the one without difficulty, as they display their hostility without disguise; but the evil-mindedness of the others is difficult to detect and hard to unveil, being like the conduct of men on the stage, who are clothed in a dress which does not belong to them, in order to conceal their real appearance(Philo, Special Laws IV 35:183-86).”

It could be easily summarized that with leadership and authority, comes a responsibility to the welfare of those of a significant disadvantaged or weaker standing in society. That the citizens who fall under this status must be looked after to prevent them from being abused. Hence why the system of tithing and offering has sharing component within its regulations for not only the tribe made to live amongst the lands of their brethren as strangers, but also those of a status well beyond their control. As a foreigner requiring assistance in the ancient world was likely a traveler that was either displaced or harmed during their journey, a widow(primarily women) is one who’s world has become turned upside down by the loss of their spouse. While an orphan is a child without not only their parents, but in many cases a family unit. Leaving them to fend for themselves.

In closing the tithes and offering system amongst the ancient Israelites and Jews of later antiquity was a type of religious oriented practice designed to seek divine favor, while providing a source of security for the Priests and their fellow Levites, and those in a destitute condition. The poor, the widower, the stranger/foreigner, and the orphan.

Well until next time as I have stated before in these travels of my religious/spiritual life it has taught me to:

1. When you hear someone make a statement concerning a scripture matter,person &/or situation. Check behind them, don’t just accept it.

2. When looking over materials don’t focus on what’s there. Cross reference & look around to see for consistency &/consensus.

3. & if culture of a group of people are involved, look to see if such claims or statements line up together with or run afoul of said culture’s traditions & lore especially during certain periods in time.

Bibliography: https://rue1b225.substack.com/p/a-part-of-my-religious-journey-30 “A part of my Religious Journey # 30: Aaron’s portrayal in the Prince of Egypt. I’m not happy.”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tithe “Tithe”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tithes_in_Judaism “Tithes in Judaism”

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Tithe. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved March 9, 2026, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/tithe

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Offering. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved March 9, 2026, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/offering

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Alms. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved March 12, 2026, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/alms

Kraeling, E.G.H. (1918). Aram and Israel: Or, The Aramaeans in Syria and Mesopotamia. Columbia University oriental studies. Columbia University Press. p. 24.

Britannica Editors (2024, December 28). Nazirite. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nazirite

Sarna, N.M., Bruce, F.F., Rylaarsdam, J.C., Fredericksen, L., Grant, R.M., Flusser, D., Sander, E.T., Davis, H.G., Faherty, R.L., Cain, S., Stendahl, K. (2025, November 3). biblical literature. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/biblical-literature

The Works of Josephus: The Antiquities of the Jews, 4.4.3-4, 4.8.8, 4.8.22

The Works of Philo: Special Laws I, sections 24-48, 27:131, 28:141-44

Special Laws II, sections 34-36, 34:176-182, 35:183-86

Biblical verses cited: Tobit‬ ‭12‬:‭8‬-‭10‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Sirach‬ ‭7‬:‭10‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Sirach‬ ‭29‬:‭8‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Matthew‬ ‭6‬:‭3‬-‭4‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Matthew‬ ‭6‬:‭3‬-‭4‬ ‭LEB‬‬, ‭‭Genesis‬ ‭14‬:‭17‬-‭20‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Genesis‬ ‭28‬:‭18‬-‭22‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Leviticus‬ ‭27‬:‭30‬-‭34‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬,

‭‭Numbers‬ ‭18‬:‭21‬-‭29‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Deuteronomy‬ ‭12‬:‭4‬-‭11‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Tobit 1:6-8, Sirach 4:10, ‭‭Deuteronomy‬ ‭12‬:‭12‬, ‭17‬-‭19‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Deuteronomy‬ ‭14‬:‭22‬-‭29‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Deuteronomy‬ ‭26‬:‭12‬-‭13‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬,

Numbers 1:48-54, 3:1-52, chap4, 8:5-26, & 35:1-8, Numbers 35:9-15, Numbers chaps 3 & 5, Exodus 29:38-42, Numbers 3:1-13, 3:17-39, 8:5-26, Deuteronomy‬ ‭10‬:‭8‬-‭9‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, ‭‭Deuteronomy‬ ‭14‬:‭26‬-‭27‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬,Leviticus 6:14-30, Numbers 6:1-21,

Deuteronomy‬ ‭14‬:‭28‬-‭29‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Deuteronomy‬ ‭26:12-15 ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Deuteronomy‬ ‭24‬:‭19‬-‭21‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Leviticus 19:9-10, 23:22, Exodus 22:21-24, Deuteronomy 10:18-19, Isaiah‬ ‭1‬:‭17‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬,Jeremiah‬ ‭22‬:‭3‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬, Zechariah‬ ‭7‬:‭8‬-‭10‬ ‭NRSVUE‬‬.

Bible versions/translations:

NRSVUE: New Revised Standard Version Updated Edition 2021

LEB: Lexham English Bible

Thumb image: The Consecration of the Tabernacle. With Aaron on the top right. (Univ. of California, San Diego), https://chayacassano.commons.gc.cuny.edu/iconography/jewish-identity-and-the-paintings/

Dr. Karen Stern, “The Synagogue at Dura-Europos ,” in Smarthistory, May 12, 2023, accessed March 20, 2026, https://smarthistory.org/synagogue-dura-europos/.

For more on the topic of Tithes & Offerings:

Maimonides, Mishne Torah, Hil. Terumot 1:1, 1.8, 1:10 1:26, 2:6.

Hil. Maaser 3:4, 3:13, 3:14 , 3:16, 4:1

If you would like to help me with my work please consider becoming a subscriber(free or paid are fine).

But if you want to just chip in(either as a free subscriber or just as a supporter) here is my Ko-fi page https://ko-fi.com/rueryuzaki and my Venmo @Rue_Ryuzaki287

The Paradesi Jews:

Meaning foreign or foreigner in Malayalam and Hindi languages(Lobo, Christabel. 2020), the Paradesi community were relative newcomers when compared to their Cochin and Bene Israel counterparts. As they were comprised of Sephardic Jews from the Iberian peninsula(Spain and Portugal) between the 15-16 centuries CE and then influx of Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews from North Africa and the Middle East during the 18th-19th centuries CE due chiefly to persecution(Yisra’el (1995)p. 28/Lobo, Christabel. 2020).

The Paradesi would settled near and/or amongst the larger Cochin Jewish community in southern India around Kerala, as others would settle in Chennai or Madras. A key trading point in southern India, which gives the Paradesi the other name they’re known by, Madras. As this port would be known for trading in diamonds, other precious stones and more(Gill, Liz (1 September 2011), Muthiah, S. (2004) p.125).

As a result of these connections to international trade a few notable people from the Paradesi community had gained recognition. Amongst them being Jacques de Paiva.

Jacques de Paiva( d. September 17, 1687), was a prominent diamond merchant and alderman in Madras(Chennai). His widow Hieronima de Paiva, would become the mistress of Elihu Yale(Elihu Yale. Encyclopedia Britannica), who Yale University is named after. They would have a son, from their relationship, as their relationship was seen as scandalous at the time(Bingham Hiram p. 24(116)).

Meanwhile Isaac Sardo Abendana(c.1662 – May 10, 1709), another Jewish merchant, who originally came from the Netherlands, and settled in India, first in what is now the state of Tamil Nadu’s city of Pulicat. Before moving to Fort St. George in Madras(Chennai)with his family(Fischel(August 1960).191–192/Fischel, W. J. (2007)p. 251). Due to his skill at cutting, polishing, and appraising diamonds, Abendana was highly sought out for consulting by other trading companies in Madras(Fischel, W. J. (2007)p. 251). Abendana’s tombstone has the distinction of being amongst the few preserved Jewish tombstones from Fort George(Fischel(August 1960).191–192), that have been relocated to the Jewish Cemetery of Chennai(Cotton(1945) [1905]p. 164–165).

The Jewish Cemetery of Chennai is one of the very few physical reminders of the old Jewish community of Madras/Chennai. The cemetery had gotten its start around 1500 with Sephardic Jewish settlers from Amsterdam(Muthiah, S. (2004) p. 30). By 1644 a second cemetery was built at the direction of Jacques de Paiva(Madras Musings). As the cemetery had contain the tombstones of 18th century Jewish merchants((Muthiah, S 2008) p. 183). However the cemetery had fallen into disrepair, but efforts had been made to help renovate and protect it(Roshne B (14 November 2016)).

Another prominent figure of the community was Avraham Navarro, as he and other Jews of Portuguese origin were diplomats for the East India Company(Fischel,W. J. (1956).25: 39–62). After factor that influenced the Paradesi community was the inclusion of Yemenite Jews into the community during the 19th century. As members had came from the southern Arabian peninsula to southern India for economic opportunities and safety(Madras Musings).

Though for some families Yemen wasn’t the only source for some of their relatives, as some would have family from the Netherlands, Romania, Germany, France and Italy(The Jews Of Madras). Generally tied with the Sephardic rite(Sephardic Law and Custom) and diaspora(Sephardi. Encyclopedia Britannica), but nonetheless a key element of the Paradesi community. As seen in the formation of important synagogues.

There are multiple historic synagogues tied to the Jewish Communities of India. Some of those are tied to the Paradesi community. Such as the Madras Synagogue, which was initially built alongside the aforementioned Jewish cemetery of Chennai, by Jacques de Paiva, his construction is actually considered to be the second Madras synagogue, as what exactly happened to the first is currently unclear(Madras Musings). Though the construction of school and harbor expansion has led to the site being partially demolished and the tombstones being removed during the mid-late 20 century. As what is left is being monitored by an anonymous caretaker, who could be of the last Madras/Paradesi Jewish family in the region(Krithika S. (31 October 2012)).

Meanwhile the older Paradesi or Mattancherry Synagogue at Kochi(Cochin), is still active. Making it one of the oldest Synagogues of the Commonwealth of Nations(Paradesi Synagogue in Cochin, India). The synagogue was built upon land granted by the Rajah of Cochin, Paraja in 1568. However due to Portuguese bombardment in 1662, it had to be reconstructed. The synagogue houses many items of historical significance and value. From the 1600 year-old copper plates on which inscribed the community’s independence and privileges it was granted. Along with gold and silver decorated Torah-scrolls, the gems embedded within them that were given by the rajahs of the region, and a carpet gifted by former Ethiopian emperor, Haile Selassie. That is kept in front of the ark that holds the Torah scrolls(Paradesi Synagogue in Cochin, India).

However the Paradesi/Madras Jews relationship with the other longer established Jewish community of India is an interesting and complicated one. That community being the Cochin or Malabar Jews(Cochin Jews. Encyclopedia Britannica).

The Cochin/Malabar Jewish community had long since settled and become apart of the cultural fabric of southern India. As their cultural practices being the primary feature that distinguished them from their neighbors (Cochin Jews. Encyclopedia Britannica).

However when it came to interactions between the Paradesi and the Cochin there tensions(Fernandes. (2008)p.51). As the Paradesi were primarily Sephardic Jews influenced by their time in Europe(particularly Spain & Portugal), the Cochin had developed a way of life influenced by living in the southern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Having their own traditions, such as the Sephardic rite mentioned earlier(Sephardic Law and Custom), while the Paradesi initially spoke Ladino or Judeo-Spanish(Schwarzwald, Ora. n.d), while the Cochin/Malabar Jews primarily spoke Jewish or Judeo- Malayalam, a language tied to India’s Dravidian language family((Zacharia, Scaria. n.d.). Along with these noted differences, one that would become a source of tension between the two groups. Their appearance, particularly complexion as the Paradesi are of lighter complexion, while the Cochin Jews(as well as many others who live on the Indian subcontinent) are of a darker complexion. To the extent that both groups had been referred to by the terms “White Jews” for the Paradesi and “Black Jews” for the Cochin(”Further Studies in the Jewish Copper Plates of Cochin”p. 66–76).

As seen in the Jewish Encyclopedia’s Cochin section by Jacobs, Joseph and Joseph Ezekiel(p. 135–138) work in covering both Jewish groups in Cochin and their interactions with each other as seen in these excerpts:

“Though they neither eat nor drink together, nor intermarry, the Black and the White Jews of Cochin have almost the same social and religious customs. They hold the same doctrines, use the same ritual (Sephardic), observe the same feasts and fasts, dress alike, and have adopted the same language Malayalam. ... The two classes are equally strict in religious observances.”

“The Jews in Cochin numbered 1,142 in 1891, and are divided into two classes: the Whites, whose complexion is almost as fair as that of European Jews, and the Blacks, who, though darker than the former, are not so black as negroes, and are of the same complexion as the Jews of Yemen or Kurdistan.”

“Among the Blacks there are no Kohanim or Levites, so that they hire impoverished White Jews of the tribe of Levi and of the family of Aaron on theoccasions when their presence is necessary.”

“The week-day dress of the White Jew is the same as that worn by the natives; but the Blacks are covered only from the waist down, wear a red kerchief on the head, and have “pe’ot.” In the synagogue, the Black wears the kaffa; the White, a turban, a shirt, a jacket with twelve buttons, over this a jubha, and trousers. Some of the younger men have adopted European dress. The “tahli,” a gold chain with a peculiar coin in the middle, is worn by all married women, including widows; but the latter are not allowed to wear their wedding-rings.”

What this recording shows is that a noticeable divide between the two communities had occurred even with the two trying to either accommodate or out do each other. Such as going as far as one positioning themselves as the true inheritors of the old Jewish culture(”Further Studies in the Jewish Copper Plates of Cochin”p. 66–76).

This would change for the better by the mid 20th century thanks in part to the efforts of the activist known as the “Jewish Gandhi” Abraham Barak Salem(1882 – 1967). He was a member of a third group involved in the interplay between the Paradesi and Cochin Jews. The Meshuchrarim, who were seen as another group of “Black Jews”. As they were primarily the descendants of mix African and European ancestry due to members of the Paradesi community practicing slavery(Advocate Abraham Barak Salem). As a result of this social circumstance and the influence of India’s existing caste system(Joshi, N. (2017, November 20)), the Meshuchrarim faced discriminating treatment from both their counterparts(Advocate Abraham Barak Salem). This would become the motivation for Abraham Salem, to pursue equality for all parties involved(Advocate Abraham Barak Salem).

Salem, the first Jewish lawyer of Cochin, would through the inspiration and adaptation of the protest methods of Mahatma Gandhi, advocate for fairer treatment amongst all the Jewish communities of southern India and ending the divisions between them(The Jewish Gandhi of Cochin).

The Paradesi community was never as large as its Cochin and Bene Israel counterparts. As today there’s less than 800 known members of the community. With most now living in Israel(The last 6 Paradesi Jews of Cochin). However like their Jewish compatriots they too had an impact upon their new home and their fellow Jews they shared India with.

Now let’s touch base with the Jews of Pakistan.

Pakistani Jews:

Meanwhile to the north west of the Indian subcontinent, in what is now the country of Pakistan, there once was a Jewish community that many people would be very unaware of. This community being known as the Pakistani Jews.

In Pakistan the presence of Jews, and the practice of Judaism has been dated at earliest around 1839 in the then Sikh Empire(Singh (2010)) of the Punjab region of what is now Pakistan and India. In what is now Rawalpindi and Peshawar(Miller(3 September 2023), Considine, (2017)).

Their settlement is due in part of the Allahdad Massacre/Pogrom of the Iranian/Persian Jews of what is now Mashhad, Iran. Resulting in forced conversions and the deaths of at least 30-40 people(Tsadik, 2007, p 35/London,1845, p.147).

By the late 1880s the community had been joined by members of the Bene Israel community with major of this blended community residing in or near modern day Karachi by the early 20th century. As many would lived as traders, artisans, poets, philosophers and civil servants(Weil( 2009) p. 8-21/ Weil( 2011) p.131/Roland (1989) p.149).

By the early 20th century the Pakistani Jewish community(comprised of Iranian Jews and Bene Israel) were estimated to be between 50,000-60,000 members(Weil, 2008,(3: 1228–1230)/Weil, 2013(1: 255–258)). The community’s practices would be in line with the Sephardic tradition(Weil, Shalva. 2009, 78-89), with Hebrew and Urdu(Urdu language. Encyclopedia Britannica) being amongst the primary languages use by the community(Schaflechner, Jürgen. (2022)/ “Cemetery Tells of Pakistan’s Jews” video below 3:55). Between World War II and the partition of India, the Jewish population of Pakistan was said to have been around 2,000 with the majority around Karachi(When Jews Found).

The deceased in population at this point was likely to the moment of people particularly that the community itself was a combination of other existing communities moving throughout the Indian subcontinent during British rule. For various reasons.

Two that would have a huge impact would be being the partitioning of India into the what is now the countries of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. As this was a chaotic process that triggered a mass movement of people(Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, etc) resulting in violent clashes, resulting in the deaths of between 200,000- 2 million people(Kulik, R.M. (2026, February 13)). While the second head a direct impact upon the Pakistani Jewish community resulting in many of the remaining members leaving. The 1948 partition of the British Mandate of Palestine into Israel and an Arab state(today’s Palestinian Territories), and the resulting 1st Arab-Israeli war, launched in response by neighboring Arab countries(1948 Arab-Israeli War. Encyclopedia Britannica). Which resulted in a spike of Antisemitism within Pakistan that especially targeted the community based there. Resulting in many of its members leaving, either for Israel or elsewhere(Kavita (4 February 2011)p.129/Weil, 2008,(3: 1228–1230)).

Another result in the lingering backlash towards the Pakistani Jewish community, a lot of the cultural materials tying them to Pakistan, Karachi in particular has not survived or in danger of being lost. One being the destruction of the Magain Shalome Synagogue in 1988 during the dictatorship of Ayub Khan, ending the nearly 100 year old site. While only a few cemeteries with identifiable Jewish graves, such Mewa Shah and Kutchi Memon with dedicated caretakers remain(What’s left of Jewish architecture in Karachi?). However the buildings design by Jewish architect, Moses Somake(1875-1947) such as the Mules Mansion, BVS Parsi High School, Quaid-e-Azam House, and more, still are in use(What’s left of Jewish architecture in Karachi?).

As of today most of Pakistan’s Jewish community lives elsewhere, generally amongst other Jewish communities tied to the India subcontinent. Such as Israel, India, and other countries in smaller numbers, as the question of remaining members inside Pakistan itself is up for debate(Salman (Nov 3, 2013)/Pakistan Virtual Jewish History Tour).

Thank you for reading. As with these communities and the others I have covered I look forward to seeing more in depth data and studies conducted upon them that would give an even better and richer picture of these communities and those of their compatriots.

As always the bibliography page is available below for more information.

Bibliography: Paradesi Jews: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradesi_Jews “Paradesi Jews”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India “History of the Jews in India”

https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20150914-the-last-six-jews-of-cochin “The last six Paradesi Jews of Cochin”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradesi_Synagogue “Paradesi Synagogue”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Synagogue “Madras Synagogue”

https://dbs.anumuseum.org.il/skn/en/c6/e23554790/אודות/The_Paradesi_Synagogue_in_Cochin_India“The Paradesi Synagogue in Cochin, India” Database of Jewish Communities, Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot.

Britannica Editors (2024, August 15). Paradesi Synagogue. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Paradesi-Synagogue

https://confluence.gallatin.nyu.edu/context/interdisciplinary-seminar/who-owns-paradesi “Who Owns Paradesi?”

Gill, Liz (1 September 2011). “Chennai: Where life is enshrined”. The Jewish Chronicle.

Muthiah, S. (2004). Madras Rediscovered. East West Books (Madras) Pvt Ltd. p. 125.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Paiva “Jacques de Paiva”

https://britishart.yale.edu/stories/new-light-group-portrait-elihu-yale-his-family-and-enslaved-child-timeline-part-1 “Timeline of Elihu Yale”

Britannica Editors (2025, July 4). Elihu Yale. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Elihu-Yale

https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44806952.pdf “Elihu Yale: Governor, Collector and Benefactor.” By Hiram Bingham p. 24(114)).

Fischel, Walter J. (August 1960). “The Jewish Merchant-Colony in Madras (Fort St. George) during the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Contribution to the Economic and Social History of the Jews in India (Concluded)”. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 3 (2): 191–192.

Fischel, Walter Joseph (2007). “Abendana, Isaac Sardo”. Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Thomson Gale. p. 251.

Cotton, Julian James (1945) [1905]. Bahadur, Rao (ed.). List of Inscriptions on Tombstones and Monuments in Madras Possessing Historical Or Archaeological Interest. Vol. 1 (Revised ed.). India: Superintendent, Government Press. pp. 164–165

Muthiah, S. (2004). Lakshmi, C. S. (ed.). The Unhurried City: Writings on Chennai. Penguin Books India. p. 30.

“The last family of Pardesi Jews in Madras « Madras Musings | We Care for Madras that is Chennai”. 9 February 2018.

Association of British Scholars (India), Chennai Chapter (2008). Muthiah, S. (ed.). Madras, Chennai: A 400-year Record of the First City of Modern India, Volume 1. Palaniappa Brothers. p. 183.

Roshne B (14 November 2016). “A cemetery buried in history”. The New Indian Express.

“18th century Jewish cemetery lies in shambles, craves for attention”. The New Indian Express. 31 October 2012. Krithika Sundaram

https://kulanuarchive.kulanu.org/communities/india/the-jews-of-madras/ “THE JEWS OF MADRAS”

Britannica Editors (2026, January 30). Sephardi. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sephardi

https://sephardicu.com/culture/foundations-of-sephardic-law/ “The Foundations of Sephardic Law and Custom”

Weil, Ilana. “The Architecture of the Paradesi Cochin Synagogue.” in (ed) Shalva Weil’s India’s Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, Mumbai: Marg Publications [first published in 2002; 3rd edn.]. 2009, 50–59

Britannica Editors (2014, December 16). Cochin Jews. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cochin-Jews

Britannica Editors (2018, December 13). Bene Israel. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bene-Israel

Jacobs, Joseph; Joseph Ezekiel. “Cochin”. Jewish Encyclopedia. pp. 135–138.

Fernandes, Edna. (2008) The Last Jews of Kerala. London: Portobello Books. p.51

Schwarzwald, Ora. n.d. Judeo-Spanish/Judezmo/Ladino. Jewish Language Website, Sarah Bunin Benor (ed.). Los Angeles: Jewish Language Project. https://www.jewishlanguages.org/judeo-spanish-judezmo-ladino. Attribution: Creative Commons Share-Alike 4.0 International.

Zacharia, Scaria. n.d. Jewish Malayalam. Jewish Language Website, Sarah Bunin Benor (ed.). Los Angeles: Jewish Language Project. https://www.jewishlanguages.org/jewish-malayalam. Attribution: Creative Commons Share-Alike 4.0 International.

“Further Studies in the Jewish Copper Plates of Cochin”, Indian Historical Review, vol. 29, no. 1–2, Jan. 2002, pp. 66–76, doi:10.1177/037698360202900204.

https://www.barandbench.com/amp/story/columns/advocate-abraham-barak-salem-how-jewish-gandhi-fought-against-racial-discrimination-in-cochin “Advocate Abraham Barak Salem: How ‘Jewish Gandhi’ fought against racial discrimination in Cochin. Salem, Kerala’s first Jewish lawyer, challenged centuries-old discrimination within the Cochin Jewish community.”

Joshi, N. (2017, November 20). Caste System in Ancient India: Varna Ideals in Vedic Times. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1152/caste-system-in-ancient-india/

https://madrascourier.com/biography/abraham-barak-salem-the-jewish-gandhi-of-cochin/ “Abraham Barak Salem: The Jewish Gandhi of Cochin”

https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/india-israel/article-714878 “A.B. Salem: Forgotten Zionist and Jewish freedom fighter of India. Abraham Barak Salem, an Indian nationalist, Jewish social reformer and later a Zionist, was born in 1882 in Cochin, in the princely state of Kerala.”

Pakistani Jews: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pakistan “History of the Jews in Pakistan”

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_Jews_in_Israel “Pakistani Jews in Israel”

Miller, Yvette Alt (3 September 2023). “When Jews Found Refuge in the Sikh Empire”

Considine, Craig (2017). Islam, race, and pluralism in the Pakistani diaspora. Milton: Routledge.

Tsadik, Daniel(2007) Between Foreigners and Shiis, Nineteenth-Century Iran and its Jewish Minority, Stanford University Press, p 35

London, J.W. Parker, 1845. Narrative of a mission to Bokhara, in the years 1843-1845, to ascertain the fate of Colonel Stoddart and Captain Conolly, page 147.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikh_Empire “Sikh Empire”

Singh, Amarinder (2010). The Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar. Roli Books. p. 40.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allahdad_Massacre “Allahdad Massacre”

Roland, Joan G. (1989). The Jewish Communities of India: Identity in a Colonial Era. Transaction Publishers. p.149

Weil, Shalva. 2009 ‘The Heritage and Legacy of Indian Jews’ in Shalva Weil (ed.) India’s Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, Mumbai: Marg Publications [first published in 2002; 3rd edn.], pp. 8–21.

Weil, Shalva. 2009 ‘Bene Israel Rites and Routines’ in Shalva Weil (ed.) India’s Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, Mumbai: Marg Publications [first published in 2002; 3Arts, 54(2): 26–37.rd edn.], 78–89.

Weil, Shalva. 2011 ‘Bene Israel’, in Adele Berlin (Ed. in Chief) Oxford Dictionary of Jewish Religion, 2nd edition, New York: Oxford University Press, 131.

Weil, Shalva. 2011 ‘Bene Israel’ (616), in Judith Baskin (ed.) Cambridge Dictionary of Judaism and Jewish Culture, New York: Cambridge University Press.

Weil, Shalva. ‘The Jews of Pakistan’, in M.Avrum Erlich (ed.) Encyclopaedia of the Jewish Diaspora, Santa Barbara, USA: ABC CLIO. 2008, (3: 1228–1230).

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Black-and-white photographic postcard of the interior of Magain Shalome Synagogue in Karachi.

Audio & Visuals for those on the go: Paradesi Jews:

Pakistani Jews:

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Medgar Evers wasn’t shot and killed by accident, a robbery gone wrong, or an act of premeditated violence. He was murdered in cold blood. In the act or murder properly known as an assassination. A type of murder when the victim or intended victim/target is a prominent political, governmental or social figure. That their death is seen as an objective to accomplish a social and/or political goal or purpose(Britannica Editors (2025, December 1). assassination).

In the case of Medgar Evers it was to stop his work in the Civil Rights movement in mid-20th century America. As he was apart of the challenge to the norm of segregation and other forms of mistreatment due to Race most notably enforced by Jim Crow laws and policies in the United States at the time(Urofsky, M.I. (2026, January 17)).

But what made Medgar Evers such a target for his assassin, besides his murderer’s bigotry? Well let’s explore who Medgar Evers was.

Early Life:

Medgar Wiley Evers was born on July 2, 1925, in the town of Decatur, in East-Central Mississippi. He was the third child of James and Jesse(Wright) Evers(Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)/Evers,Andrew (1997)p. 5.). Growing up in Mississippi(as well as much of the American South) was not easy for Evers and his family. From attending racial segregated schools, while enduring racial motivated mistreatment, such as being verbal racial epithets, being spit on, and being struck by objects thrown by White students riding on buses. Due to Evers and his siblings having to walk to school due to the lack of school buses for Black schools in the area(https://department.va.gov/history/featured-stories/medgar-evers/).

However Evers would also witness gangs of white men looking for black people to assault. One of which had lynched a close family friend(Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)/https://department.va.gov/history/featured-stories/medgar-evers/). Despite these circumstances the Evers excelled in school but by 1943 at the age of 17, Medgar Evers would enlist in the US Army and head off for World War II(https://department.va.gov/history/featured-stories/medgar-evers/).

Military Service:

Medgar Evers despite the US military’s segregation policies still being enforced and the prejudices of White officers of Black people’s ability to serve in combat, would serve in World War II as part of one of the major critical units in the war during his time in Great Britain and France. As a part of the “Red Ball Express” via the 657th Port Company(https://department.va.gov/history/featured-stories/medgar-evers/). Ensuring that Allied equipment, supplies and vehicles were transported to the front lines by convoys(Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)). He would be Honorably discharged by 1946 with as a Technician Fifth Grade(a equivalent to today’s Corporal), with the Good Conduct Medal, the European – African – Middle Eastern Campaign Medal, two Bronze Service Stars(for Normandy and Northern France Campaigns), and the World War II Victory Medal(https://department.va.gov/history/featured-stories/medgar-evers/).

It was during his time in World War II that finally set Evers on his course towards championing the cause of Civil Rights and equality for his fellow Black Americans. As he would see French Black soldiers being treated as equals. Leading him to say to his older brother, Charles Evers: “When we get out of the Army, we’re going to straighten this thing out!(“Medgar W. Evers.”).

Because not long after returning from the war Evers and his brother, Charles, would led a group of Black veterans to the Newton County courthouse in Decatur to register to vote. However Evers’ small group was met by armed White men who threatened the veterans with violence if they did not leave. This did not deter him, it would be more motivation for Evers to continue to advocate for the full citizenship rights of African Americans(Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)).

As a Civil Rights Activist:

By 1952 Medgar Evers had gained his High School diploma, his Bachelors in Business Administration from Alcorn Agriculture and Mechanical College in Mississippi (today’s Alcorn State University). Married his classmate Myrlie Beasley, and had three children and was living in Mound Bayou, Mississippi(Arroyo, (2006) p. 738/Cardon, Dustin (January 21, 2013)/https://department.va.gov/history/featured-stories/medgar-evers/#b8e682f9-1ad2-4331-b26e-df8c6f5cabde).

Evers would work on the securing equal rights for African Americans across Mississippi, first president of the Regional Council of Negro Leadership, then as the NAACP Mississippi branch’s first field secretary(Beito,Royster (2018) p. 88–93/Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)).

He would challenge racial discrimination in Mississippi, through boycotts of businesses that discriminated against Black Americans(Beito,Royster (2018) p. 88–93), voter registration drives, and integration efforts of public schools(Arroyo, (2006) p. 738). Notably after the landmark US Supreme Court decision Brown V Board, he would try to apply to the University of Mississippi Law school or Ole Miss Law, submitting his situation to the NAACP as a test case, after he was turned down. As Evers would later used his experience to help James Meredith when he enrolled into the University of Mississippi(Ribeiro (2001) p.16/Brown, Stentiford, (2008)p. 277–78). Another example of Evers’ efforts was his public investigation of the lynching of Emmett Till. Helping Black witnesses to testify, while going as far as to kept them in protective custody, and safely spiriting them out of town after the trial. For one witness, Evers and a mortuary had hidden this witness in a casket and transported them across state lines(Eyes on the Prize: Interview with Myrlie Evers).

Medgar Evers actions would draw unto him enemies. Those who wanted to protect the racial hierarchy provided by Jim Crow. As Evers and his family would be targeted by White supremacist groups and aligned individuals. As he would survive several attempts on his life, including nearly being run down by a car and having his Jackson, Mississippi home firebombed in May of 1963. His wife, Myrlie Evers, would recall how other Black Americans would cross the street just so they would not be seen close to her husband, lest they become targets as well. Resulting in other Civil Rights activists, and Evers’ own family, urging him to leave Mississippi for his own safety. However Evers refused to runaway from his home and abandoning the cause of freedom that he had fought for during World War II(Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021), Eyes on the Prize: Interview with Myrlie Evers).

The Assassination of Medgar Evers:

Image Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument National Register Information System ID: 00001459 https://npgallery.nps.gov/AssetDetail/NRIS/00001459/https://www.nps.gov/memy/index.htm

On May of 1963 Medgar Evers would appear on local TV station WLBT, as he would publicly challenged the mayor of Jackson, Mississippi’s racist actions. Saying: “The years of change are upon us. In the racial picture things will never be as they once were. History has reached a turning point, here and over the world(https://department.va.gov/history/featured-stories/medgar-evers/). A month later the world of Medgar Evers and his family will be changed forever.

On the evening of June 11th, 1963, US President John F. Kennedy gave a speech imploring the nation on the importance of Civil Rights and the fair treatment of all American citizens(Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)). Medgar Evers was attending a NAACP meeting during that time, he would be heading home a few hours later. He would arrive home after midnight on June 12th, 1963(https://department.va.gov/history/featured-stories/medgar-evers/#3a63fcfd-cbd4-4f21-8aa8-540ee1c28e31). Evers would pull into his driveway, he would get out his car, carrying the NAACP’s “Jim Crow Must Go” T-Shirt and begin walking towards his house to meet his family(https://naacp.org/find-resources/history-explained/civil-rights-leaders/medgar-evers).

Unbeknownst to Evers, was that he was being watched that night by a man hidden amongst the trees on a hill across the street from Evers’ home. The man was watching Evers through the scope of his Enfield rife, once he was sure of his target, the assassin would pull the trigger. The rife fired its bullet, piercing Medgar Evers through his back. He would stagger to his front steps before collapsing. After hearing the gun shot Evers wife and children will run outside finding Evers on the ground(https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/medgar-evers).

As mentioned in the beginning Medgar Evers would be rushed to the University of Mississippi Medical Center. Where he would die nearly an hour after arriving at the age of 37(Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)).

On June 19th Medgar Evers was laid to rest at Arlington National Cemetery, with full military honors front of 3,000 people. On the 28th of June, Life Magazine’s cover would feature Myrlie Evers comforting her son at the funeral(Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)). Afterwards back in Jackson, Mississippi, a march of 5,000 people, led by Allen Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and other Civil Rights leaders(O’Brien (2013)p.118).

The Pursuit of Justice:

Upon investigating the crime scene, local authorities had found the rife used in Evers’ murder. They had recovered a fingerprint and submitted it to the FBI for analysis. From there the FBI was able to connect the print to a man known as Byron De La Beckwith. Who was arrested a few days later, after the matching print, the injury to his eye due to the gun scope from the rifle’s recoil, and witnesses noting that Beckwith had been searching for Evers’ home prior to the shooting, along with identifying his car near the scene of the murder(https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/medgar-evers/Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)).

Beckwith had been a member of the local pro-segregationist White Citizens’ Council and the Ku Klux Klan(https://naacp.org/find-resources/history-explained/civil-rights-leaders/medgar-evers). Both groups had significant influence in the area, as seen in the efforts of having Beckwith stand trial and be convicted. As the juries at both trials were not only all White men but deadlocked(Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)). However most importantly thanks to information provided from Klansman-turned-FBI-informant Delmar Dennis. Dennis had informed the Clarion-Ledger, of Jackson, Mississippi. That the Ku Klux Klan had influenced the juries in the 1964 murder trials(Barnett, (April 18, 2002)). It became more apparent when the Clarion-Ledger began looking into the activities of the Mississippi’s State Sovereignty Commission. A secretive organization that had disbanded in 1969.

It was by reviewing the Commission’s documents, which had been kept sealed in the Mississippi Department of Archives from the time of the disbanding until 1989. That had indicated the possibility of jury tampering and official misconduct in Beckwith’s second trial. Helping Assistant District Attorney Bobby DeLaughter, to prosecute Beckwith for the murder a third time in 1994(Barnett (April 18, 2002)).

This time DeLaughter was able to convict Beckwith through a fair, unbiased jury b, as DeLaughter had stated “”No man is above the law,” he said. “No man, regardless of age, is above the law(Barnett (April 18, 2002))”. Beckwith would finish out the rest of his life behind bars. Despite his appeals Beckwith will not succeed. By 2001 Beckwith would die in prison at the age of 80(Barnett (April 18, 2002)).

Medgar Evers family would continue where he had left off. As his older brother, Charles Evers, assumed Medgar Evers’ former post in the NAACP and served as the mayor of Fayette, Mississippi. Myrlie Evers-Williams(she later remarried) later became the first chairwoman of the NAACP(Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)).

Medgar Evers once said, “you can kill a man, but you can’t kill an idea.” As his death would help bolster public support for the Civil Rights Act that President John F. Kennedy had proposed and which was ultimately signed into law in 1964, under his successor after his assassination, Lyndon B. Johnson(Tyler Bamford(February 22, 2021)/

Medgar Evers is a member of a long line of champions pursuing for respect and justice. Not for themselves but for those around them. Proving that people committed to such Ideals keeps them alive. Even when they are long gone.

Thank you for your time. Please check out the Bibliography section below if you want to know more about Medgar Evers.

Bibliography: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medgar_Evers “Medgar Evers”

https://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/medgar-evers “Medgar Evers”

https://naacp.org/find-resources/history-explained/civil-rights-leaders/medgar-evers “MEDGAR EVERS”

https://vault.fbi.gov/Medgar%20Evers “FBI case records on Medgar Evers”

Tyler Bamford . (February 22, 2021). Medgar Evers: US Army Veteran and Civil Rights Leader Retrieved February 15, 2026, from https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/medgar-evers-us-army-veteran-and-civil-rights-leader

https://www.mec.cuny.edu/about/history/life-of-medgar-evers/ “Life of Medgar Evers”

https://department.va.gov/history/featured-stories/medgar-evers/ “Medgar Evers – U.S. Army and Civil Rights Veteran”

“Medgar W. Evers.” National Museum of the United States Army.

Britannica Editors (2026, January 26). Medgar Evers. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Medgar-Evers

https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/evers-medgar-wiley “Evers, Medgar Wiley”

https://themississippilink.com/news/celebrating-the-life-of-civil-rights-activist-and-icon-medgar-evers/ “Celebrating the life of civil rights activist and icon Medgar Evers”

https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/people/namesakes/medgar-evers.html “Civil Rights Activist Medgar Evers”

https://www.wapt.com/article/black-history-medgar-evers-mississippi/63707488 “Black History Month: Medgar Evers became a martyr during the push for voting rights, desegregation”

https://www.mec.cuny .edu/about/history/murder-of-medgar-evers/ “Murder of Medgar Evers”

Barnett, Ross (April 18, 2002). “The Medgar Evers Assassination]”. PBS Newshour.

Birnbaum, Jonathan; Taylor, Clarence (June 2000). Civil Rights Since 1787: A Reader on the Black Struggle. NYU Press. p. 490.

Britannica Editors (2025, December 1). assassination. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/assassination

Urofsky, M.I. (2026, January 17). Jim Crow law. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Jim-Crow-law

Evers, Charles; Szanton, Andrew (1997). Have no fear: the Charles Evers story. p. 5.

Arroyo, Elizabeth (2006). “Medgar Evers”. In Palmer, Colin A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History (2nd ed.). London, England: Macmillan. p. 738.

Cardon, Dustin (January 21, 2013). “Myrlie Evers-Williams”. Jackson Free Pressn. Jackson, Mississippi

Ribeiro, Myra (2001). The Assassination of Medgar Evers. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 16

Brown, Nikki L. M.; Stentiford, Barry M. (2008). The Jim Crow Encyclopedia: Greenwood Milestones in African American History. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 277–78.

“Eyes on the Prize: Interview with Myrlie Evers. https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip_151-833mw29361

O’Brien, M. J. (2013). We Shall Not Be Moved: The Jackson Woolworth’s Sit-In and the Movement It Inspired. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 118.

“White Supremacist Indicted for Third Time in Shooting Death of Medgar Evers”. Jet. Vol. 79, no. 12. January 7, 1991.

Volk, David (January 2, 2023). “How long does it take for a body to decompose?”. livescience.com.

Baden, M. M. (2006). “Time of Death and Changes after Death. Part 4: Exhumation”. In Spitz, W.U.; Spitz, D.J. (eds.). Spitz and Fisher’s Medicolegal Investigation of Death. Guideline for the Application of Pathology to Crime Investigations(4th ed.). Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. pp. 174–83.

Audio and Visuals for those on the Go:

https://www.pbs.org/video/everlasting-life-and-legacy-of-medgar-evers-vqxvf3/“Everlasting: Life and Legacy of Medgar Evers”

If you would like to help me with my work please consider becoming a subscriber(free or paid are fine).

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